Agrivoltaics

Agrivoltaics or agrophotovoltaics means co-developing the same area of land for both solar photovoltaic power and agricultural production.^[1] The coexistence of solar panels and crops implies a sharing of solar radiation between these two types of production.^[2] It can be defined as the practice of integrating solar photovoltaics with agricultural practices, for siting photovoltaic production systems on or adjacent to cropland or grazing land. It implies the symbiotic co-production of both agricultural goods and solar energy, with the intent of optimizing the combined outputs. An Ontario company calls Agrivoltaics "a perfect combination of solar panels and plants on farmland... to generate crops and energy simultaneously and without conflict." Agrivoltaics can be thought of as the scientifically planned companion planting of solar energy production and agricultural production.

This page introduces the topic and is intended to help users to find specific content based on geographic focus, climate type, crop or animal production type, and other factors.

Clair, J., et al. (2026) “SAND Final Report TCF SNL Agrivoltaic Microgrid Project v1,” Sandia Ntional Laboratory, Report No. SAND2026-18050. https://www.academia.edu/165156267/SAND_Final_Report_TCF_SNL_Agrivoltaic_Microgrid_Project_v1?sm=a&rhid=39205360899

Hayibo, Koami S. and Pearce, Joshua M., A GIS-Driven Framework for Quantifying Agricultural Fence-Mounted Solar Photovoltaic Energy Potential. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=6403959 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.6403959

Science Friday Initiative. 2026. The Growing Experiment Of Putting Solar Panels On Farmland. https://www.sciencefriday.com/segments/agrivoltaics-solar-panel-farming/

Jamil, Uzair, Alrayes, Linda, et al. 2026. "Agrivoltaic Lettuce Production Under Future Climates: Integrating Photovoltaic Energy Conversion with Sustainable Food Production." Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=6066895 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.6066895

• • Animal grazing [Add more in alphabetical Order, please.
    • Rabbits
  • Berries:
    • Blueberries
    • Cranberries
    • Red Currants
  • Fruit Orchards:
    • Pears
  • Plants:
    • Pepper
    • Corn
    • Bok Choy
    • Kale
    • Broccoli
  • Wheat:
    • Winter Wheat
  • Fruit
    • Kiwifruit
    • Tomatoes
  • Vegetables
    • Komatsuna
    • Kabu
    • Spinach
    • Lettuce
      • Jamil, Uzair, Alrayes, Linda, et al. 2026. "Agrivoltaic Lettuce Production Under Future Climates: Integrating Photovoltaic Energy Conversion with Sustainable Food Production." Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=6066895 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.6066895
    • Silverbeet
    • Corn
    • Chard
    • Peppers
    • Spinach
    • Potatoes
    • Corn
    • Rice
    • Soybean
    • Adzuki bean
    • Garlic
    • Onion
    • Rye
    • Mixed planting of corn with soybean
  • Cultivar
    • Mizuna
• Other specialty agrivoltaic opportunities, linked to research and case studies: greenhouses, aquaculture, hydroponics

Where does agrivoltaics fit within the context of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals?

Where does agrivoltaics fit within the context of the Pattern Language for a Conservation Economy and Reliable Prosperity?

• Al Mamun, Mohammad Abdullah, Paul Dargusch, et al., 2022, "A review of research on agrivoltaic systems," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 161, ISSN 1364-0321, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112351.
• Barron-Gafford, G.A., Pavao-Zuckerman, M.A., Minor, R.L., et al. Agrivoltaics provide mutual benefits across the food–energy–water nexus in drylands. Nat Sustain 2, 848–855 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0364-5
• Clair, J., et al. (2026) “SAND Final Report TCF SNL Agrivoltaic Microgrid Project v1,” Sandia Ntional Laboratory, Report No. SAND2026-18050. https://www.academia.edu/165156267/SAND_Final_Report_TCF_SNL_Agrivoltaic_Microgrid_Project_v1?sm=a&rhid=39205360899
• Harshavardhan Dinesh, and Joshua M. Pearce, "The potential of agrivoltaic systems," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 54, 299-308 (2016). DOI:10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.024, open access
• Abe Macy, Tyler Swanson, et al. (2025). "Designing for dual-use solar: An examination of the agrivoltaic policy landscape in the United States," Energy Policy, V205, 114682, ISSN 0301-4215, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2025.114682.
• Majumdar, Debaleena, and Martin J. Pasqualetti, "Dual use of agricultural land: Introducing 'agrivoltaics' in Phoenix Metropolitan Statistical Area, USA," Landscape and Urban Planning 170 (2018), 150-168, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.10.011 Open access
• Pascaris, Alexis S., Chelsea Schelly, Laurie Burnham, and Joshua M. Pearce. "Integrating solar energy with agriculture: Industry perspectives on the market, community, and socio-political dimensions of agrivoltaics," Energy Research & Social Science 75(2021), 102023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2021.102023, open access
• Pascaris, Alexis S., Chelsea Schelly, and Joshua M. Pearce, "A First Investigation of Agriculture Sector Perspectives on the Opportunities and Barriers for Agrivoltaics," Agronomy 10(2020), n12: 1885. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10121885, Open access
• Pearce, Joshua, Agrivoltaics in Ontario Canada: Promise and Policy, December 2021, University of Western Ontario, PrePrints 2021, DOI:10.20944/preprints202112.0430.v1
• ScienceDirect search for more: https://www.sciencedirect.com/search?qs=Agrivoltaics
• Pearce, J. M. (2022). Agrivoltaics in Ontario Canada: Promise and Policy. Sustainability, 14(5), 3037.
• Pearce, J. M. (2021). Parametric Open Source Cold-Frame Agrivoltaic Systems. Inventions, 6(4), 71.
• Uzair Jamil, Thomas Hickey, and Joshua M. Pearce, 2024, "Solar energy modelling and proposed crops for different types of agrivoltaics systems," Energy Volume 304, 132074, ISSN 0360-5442, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.132074.

• Grapes: Prannay R. Malu, Utkarsh S. Sharma, and Joshua M. Pearce, "Agrivoltaic potential on grape farms in India," Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 23(2017), 104-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2017.08.004.
• Rabbits:
  • Alexis Pascaris, Rob Handler, Chelsea Schelly, and Joshua M Pearce, Life cycle assessment of pasture-based agrivoltaic systems: Emissions and energy use of integrated rabbit production, December 2021, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666784321000243?via%3Dihub. Open access.
  • William Lytle, Theresa K. Meyer, et al., "Conceptual Design and Rationale for a New Agrivoltaics Concept: Pasture-Raised Rabbits and Solar Farming," Journal of Cleaner Production, 282(2021), 124476, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124476, Open access
• Sheep: Kochendoerfer, Nikola, and Michael L. Thonney, Grazing Sheep on Solar Sites in New York State: Opportunities and Challenges Scope and scaling-up of the NYS sheep industry to graze ground-mounted photovoltaic arrays for vegetation management. Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, February 2021. https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blogs.cornell.edu/dist/c/9310/files/2021/02/Solar-Site-Sheep-Grazing-in-NY.pdf
• Pepper, Corn & Winter Wheat: Pearce, J. M. (2022). Agrivoltaics in Ontario Canada: Promise and Policy. Sustainability, 14(5), 3037.
• Kiwifruit: Jiang, S., Tang, D., Zhao, L., Liang, C., Cui, N., Gong, D., ... & Peng, Y. (2022). Effects of different photovoltaic shading levels on kiwifruit growth, yield and water productivity under “agrivoltaic” system in Southwest China. Agricultural Water Management, 269, 107675.
• Komatsuna, Mizuna, Kabu, and Spinach: KIRIMURA, M., TAKESHITA, S., MATSUO, M., ZUSHI, K., GEJIMA, Y., HONSHO, C., ... & NISHIOKA, K. (2022). Effects of Agrivoltaics (Photovoltaic Power Generation Facilities on Farmland) on Growing Condition and Yield of Komatsuna, Mizuna, Kabu, and Spinach. Environmental Control in Biology, 60(2), 117-127.
• Lettuce & Silverbeet: Nassar, A., Perez-Wurfl, I., Roemer, C., & Hameiri, Z. Improving Productivity of Cropland through Agrivoltaics.
• Bok Choy: Kumpanalaisatit, M., Setthapun, W., Sintuya, H., & Jansri, S. N. (2022). Efficiency Improvement of Ground-Mounted Solar Power Generation in Agrivoltaic System by Cultivation of Bok Choy (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis L.) Under the Panels. International Journal of Renewable Energy Development, 11(1).
• Corn: Sekiyama, T., & Nagashima, A. (2019). Solar sharing for both food and clean energy production: performance of agrivoltaic systems for corn, a typical shade-intolerant crop. Environments, 6(6), 65.
• Kale, chard, broccoli, peppers, tomatoes, and spinach: Hudelson, T., & Lieth, J. H. (2021, June). Crop production in partial shade of solar photovoltaic panels on trackers. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 2361, No. 1, p. 080001). AIP Publishing LLC.
• Potatoes: Gfüllner, L., Muller, O., Meier-Grüll, M., Jedmowski, C., & Berwind, M. Yield Optimization Through Control Strategies in Tracked Agrivoltaic Systems.
• Corn, rice, soybean, adzuki bean, garlic, onion, rye, mixed planting of corn with soybean: Jo, H., Asekova, S., Bayat, M. A., Ali, L., Song, J. T., Ha, Y. S., ... & Lee, J. D. (2022). Comparison of Yield and Yield Components of Several Crops Grown under Agro-Photovoltaic System in Korea. Agriculture, 12(5), 619.

• American Farmland Trust: High-Level Guiding Principles for Solar Energy Development
• The Bridge, a periodical published by the U.S. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM), publishes articles on engineering research, education, and practice; science and technology policy; and the interface between engineering and technology and society. The Spring 2022 Issue is focused on Smart Agriculture. JUNE 15, 2022 VOLUME 52 ISSUE 2. https://www.nae.edu/276483/Summer-Bridge-on-Smart-Agriculture
• Coalition for Community-Solar Access, Community Solar And Farming Are Proving To Be A Perfect Match, April 2021 by Jean Haggerty.
• Open Energy Information (OpenEI). Agrivoltaics Primer. https://openei.org/wiki/InSPIRE/Primer
• With funding from the U.S. Department of Energy, scientists at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, and a growing number of universities are researching solar farm designs.
  • NREL: Beneath Solar Panels, the Seeds of Opportunity Sprout
  • Article in Ecosystem Services, Volume 47, February 2021, 101227: Modeling the ecosystem services of native vegetation management practices at solar energy facilities
  • Article in Nature Sustainability Journal: Techno–ecological synergies of solar energy for global sustainability
• February 2021 Webinar Sponsored by Solar United Neighbors:
  • Video recording: https://youtu.be/BRYGY498gsU
  • Chat log and registrant list (without contact information): https://bit.ly/2ZS2JRC
  • Full paper and presentation slides: https://bit.ly/3ss6AkC
• Wikipedia Definition of Agrivoltaic
• Audiopedia Definition, on YouTube (Audio only), with links to additional videos about Agrivoltaics
• Search for agrivoltaics at U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory
• Introduction to Agrivoltaics from University of Arizona
• Introduction to Agrivoltaics from Oregon State University
• Introduction to Agrivoltaics from AgDaily online magazine
• Abe Macy, Tyler Swanson, et al. (2025). "Designing for dual-use solar: An examination of the agrivoltaic policy landscape in the United States," Energy Policy, V205, 114682, ISSN 0301-4215, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2025.114682.
• News from the U.S. Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA), October 2024, Analysis Tools Can Help Farmers Calculate Economics of Agrivoltaics, https://attra.ncat.org/analysis-tools-can-help-farmers-calculate-economics-of-agrivoltaics/ And, see: https://www.umass.edu/news/article/new-analysis-tools-umass-amherst-can-help-farmers-make-informed-choice-agrivoltaics AND https://openei.org/wiki/InSPIRE
• Center for Rural Affairs, October 2024, Fact Sheet Provides Resources for Dual-Use Solar Ordinances. https://www.cfra.org/news-release/new-center-rural-affairs-fact-sheet-provides-resources-dual-use-solar-ordinances

  University of Massachusetts Amherst developed a new set of analytical tools to help farmers calculate whether agrivoltaics make economic sense for them. The two spreadsheet-based tools consist of a crop-specific logbook to analyze farm-level activities and a whole-farm tool to calculate aggregate projections for trade-offs between crop production with or without agrivoltaics. The spreadsheets incorporate factors such as different solar technologies, crop spacing, labor costs, and extra fuel to navigate farm equipment around solar panels.

• Clean Energy Resource Teams (Minnesota), Habitat Friendly Solar Summit, March 9, 2022,

• Heckeroth, Stephen, and Carly Rixham, "Agrivoltaics: Have your kale and eat it, too" [Electronic article], Solar Today, Spring 2021, pp. 6-11. https://ases.org/solartoday/
• Kennedy, Ryan, September 2022, "Agrivoltaics: Co-locating solar and agriculture yields mutual benefits," PV Magazine [electronic article], https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2022/09/08/agrivoltaics-co-locating-solar-and-agriculture-yields-mutual-benefits/
• National Public Radio program, 1A (“One A”), March 2, 2023, 1A Remaking America: Can Solar-Power Help Fix Drought-Ravaged Farmlands? [33 minutes], https://www.npr.org/2023/03/02/1160771088/1a-remaking-america-can-solar-power-help-fix-drought-ravaged-farmlands
• Pickerell, Kelly, "Two-year study on economic and environmental impacts of co-located solar + agriculture now underway," Solar Power World, 4 May 2021, https://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/2021/05/two-year-study-on-economic-and-environmental-impacts-of-co-located-solar-agriculture-now-under-way/
• Prevost, Lisa, "Connecticut solar developers enlist sheep to cut grass and ease tensions [Electronic article], Energy News Network, 3 March 2021. https://energynews.us/2021/03/03/northeast/connecticut-solar-developers-enlist-sheep-to-cut-grass-and-ease-tensions/

• Floatovoltaics - Photovoltaics that float on water
• Agrivoltaic potential on grape farms in India
• The potential of agrivoltaic systems

The Western Innovation for Renewable Energy (WIRED) system is currently under construction to test out new open source methods to reduce PV systems costs and enable novel forms of agrivoltaics including the world's first agrivoltaic agrotunnel.

• 
  The Agrivoltaic Potential of Canada
• 
  Social acceptance of agrivoltaics in Canada: Insights on public perceptions across technologies and provinces from a nationwide survey
• 
  Net Zero Agrivoltaic Arrays for Agrotunnel Vertical Growing Systems: Energy Analysis and System Sizing
• 
  Regenerative Agrivoltaics: Integrating Photovoltaics and Regenerative Agriculture for Sustainable Food and Energy Systems
• 
  Agrivoltaics as a systems innovation: multi-dimensional benefits from global studies across climate, agriculture, energy, and ecosystems
• 
  Creating just agrivoltaic transitions for large-scale solar: a comparative multi criteria analysis
• 
  The potential of agrivoltaic systems to meet energy demand of data centers in the United States
• 
  Some like it hot, some like it partially shaded: The effect of semi-transparent solar photovoltaic modules on the growth metrics of greenhouse cultivated spicy peppers
• 
  Integration of semi-transparent photovoltaic modules and heat pumps into agrivoltaic tomato greenhouses: Energy, economic, and environmental savings
• 
  Strawberry agrivoltaics in Canada: Comparing uniform thin film and non-uniform crystalline silicon semi-transparent solar photovoltaic modules in controlled environment agriculture
• 
  Climate-Resilient Crop Production Under Agrivoltaics: Experimental Evaluation of Amaranth Production With Semi-Transparent Photovoltaic Modules in Canada Under Changing Climates
• 
  Is Non-Thermal Plasma Treatment of Commodity Lettuce Seeds Worth It? Economic Impacts and Yield of Lettuce in Indoor Vertical Farming Testing Dry Air, Wet Air, N2 and O2 Plasmas
• 
  Lighting Energy and Revenue Analysis in an Agrivoltaic Agrotunnel for Lettuce and Swiss Chard Production
• 
  Full Heads or Cut and Come Again? Economic Analysis of Leafy Green Cultivation in Solar-Powered Indoor Vertical Farms
• 
  Heat Stress Tolerance in Organic Romaine Lettuce Using Crystalline Silicon and Red, Blue & Green-Colored Thin Film Agrivoltaic Systems
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  Agrivoltaic Lettuce Production Under Future Climates: A Sustainable Strategy for Optimizing Food and Energy Yields
• 
  Effects of Thin-Film and Wafer-Based Photovoltaic Module Transparency and Spectral Properties on Microclimate and Turnip Yield in Agrivoltaic Systems
• 
  Photosynthetically active radiation complexities in agrivoltaic policy mandates: Insights from controlled environment yields under semitransparent photovoltaics
• 
  Should Agrivoltaics Ever Be Decommissioned? How Agrivoltaics Bolster Farm Climate Adaptation Even When Unpowered
• 
  Transparency effects in agrivoltaics lettuce cultivation using uniform/non-uniform semitransparent photovoltaic modules in controlled environments
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  Impacts of Type of Partial Transparency on Strawberry Agrivoltaics: Uniform Illumination Thin Film Cadmium-Telluride and Non-uniform Crystalline Silicon Solar Photovoltaic Modules
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  Additional value of non-electricity generating services (co-benefits) provided by non-conventional dual use solar photovoltaic systems: A PRISMA review
• 
  An open-source spectral measurement platform for plant reflectance and material identification
• 
  Open-Source Photosynthetically Active Radiation Sensor for Enhanced Agricultural and Agrivoltaics Monitoring
• 
  Effects of Spectral Ranges on Growth and Yield in Vertical Hydroponic–Aeroponic Hybrid Grow Systems for Radishes and Turnips
• 
  Financial Analysis of Agrivoltaic Sheep: Breeding and Auction Lamb Business Models
• 
  Experimental impacts of transparency on strawberry agrivoltaics using thin film photovoltaic modules under low light conditions
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  Open-Source Indoor Horizontal Grow Structure Designs
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  Greenhouse applications of solar photovoltaic driven heat pumps in northern environments
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  Solar Energy Modelling and Proposed Crops for Different Types of Agrivoltaics Systems
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  Maximizing Biomass with Agrivoltaics: Potential and Policy in Saskatchewan Canada
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  Energy Policy for Agrivoltaics in Alberta Canada
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  Agrivoltaics in Ontario Canada: Promise and Policy
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  Energy Modeling and Techno-Economic Feasibility Analysis of Greenhouses for Tomato Cultivation Utilizing the Waste Heat of Cryptocurrency Miners
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  Advancing Agrivoltaics within the U.S. Legal Framework: A Multidimensional Assessment of Barriers & Opportunities
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  Low cost climate station for smart agriculture applications with photovoltaic energy and wireless communication
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  Design and Implementation of 3-D Printed Radiation Shields for Environmental Sensors
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  Design of a low-cost mobile multispectral albedometer with geopositioning and absolute orientation
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  Parametric Open Source Cold-Frame Agrivoltaic Systems
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  Impacts of Location on Designs and Economics of DIY Low-Cost Fixed-Tilt Open Source Wood Solar Photovoltaic Racking
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  Open-Source Design and Economics of Manual Variable-Tilt Angle DIY Wood-Based Solar Photovoltaic Racking System
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  Solar photovoltaic wood racking mechanical design for trellis-based agrivoltaics
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  Open-Source Vertical Swinging Wood-Based Solar Photovoltaic Racking Systems
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  Vertical Free-Swinging Photovoltaic Racking Energy Modelling: A Novel Approach to Agrivoltaics
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  Optimal inverter and wire selection for solar photovoltaic fencing applications
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  The potential for fencing to be used as low-cost solar photovoltaic racking
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  Do agrivoltaics improve public support for solar? A survey on perceptions, preferences, and priorities
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  Greener Sheep: Life Cycle Analysis of Integrated Sheep Agrivoltatic Systems
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  Life cycle assessment of pasture-based agrivoltaic systems: Emissions and energy use of integrated rabbit production
• 
  Conceptual Design and Rationale for a New Agrivoltaics Concept: Pastured-Raised Rabbits and Solar Farming
• 
  Integrating solar energy with agriculture: Industry perspectives on the market, community, and socio-political dimensions of agrivoltaics
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  A First Investigation of Agriculture Sector Perspectives on the Opportunities and Barriers for Agrivoltaics
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  Open-Source Script for Design and 3D Printing of Porous Structures for Soil Science
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  Agrivoltaic potential on grape farms in India
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  Aquavoltaics: Synergies for dual use of water area for solar photovoltaic electricity generation and aquaculture
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  The potential of agrivoltaic systems
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  Solar Photovoltaic Powered On-Site Ammonia Production for Nitrogen Fertilization
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  Open-Source Photometric System for Enzymatic Nitrate Quantification
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  Open-source manufacturing of polypropylene replacements for peat cups in vertical farming: improvements in life cycle embodied energy, greenhouse gas emissions, labor and operational costs
• 
  Agrivoltaics Canada

• Coal with Carbon Capture and Sequestration is not as Land Use Efficient as Solar Photovoltaic Technology for Climate Neutral Electricity Production
• Dual use of land for PV farms and agriculture literature review
• sheep
• Israeli white plastic reflectors

• A Farmer's Guide to Going Solar (NREL)
• German guidelines: https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/en/documents/publications/studies/APV-Guideline.pdf
• 2021 review
• Miskin, C.K., Li, Y., Perna, A., Ellis, R.G., Grubbs, E.K., Bermel, P. and Agrawal, R., 2019. Sustainable co-production of food and solar power to relax land-use constraints. Nature Sustainability, 2(10), pp.972-980.
• Retrofitting solar parks for agrivoltaics
• Shading PV
• Alexis' talk at American Solar Grazing Association2021

1. Solar Sheep, Alberta (https://www.solarsheep.ca/)
2. Sun Cycle Farms, Alberta (https://suncyclefarms.com/)
3. Golden Leaf Agrivoltaics, Ontario (https://goldenleafagrivoltaics.ca/)
4. The Lara Cost Farm, Ontario (https://thelaracosta.com/)
5. Arnprior Solar, Ontario (https://www.edf-re.com/project/arnprior-solar/)
6. Lewis Land & Stock, Ontario (https://solargrazing.org/asga-call-29-don-lewis-from-lewis-land-stock-of-ontario-canada/)
7. Nanticoke Solar, Ontario (https://www.opg.com/stories/hundreds-of-grazing-sheep-helping-to-keep-opgs-nanticoke-solar-facility-in-trim-shape/)
8. Western University’s Western Innovation for Renewable Energy Deployment (WIRED) (https://www.appropedia.org/Western_Innovation_for_Renewable_Energy_Deployment_(WIRED))
9. Orchard, Middlesex, Ontario
10. Solar Grazing Map https://solargrazing.org/map/