TissueDB/Materials/Silicone, Castable
CC BY-SA 3.0 by Pfehrman via Wikimedia Commons
Silicone (polydimethylsiloxane/PDMS) is a two-part elastomer used in surgical simulation to create durable soft tissue models. Silicone can be formulated to match mechanical properties of various tissues by adjusting durometer (hardness), and accepts pigmentation to replicate tissue colours.
Tissues
| Tissue | Visual | Tactile | Simulator | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Skin | Yes | Yes | ALL-SAFE Trocar Placement, Z-Plasty Simulator, AmoSmile Physical Simulator | Shore 00-30 to 00-50 (e.g. Ecoflex 00-30). Add skin-tone pigment for colour match. | |
| Adipose tissue | Yes | Yes | AmoSmile Physical Simulator | Shore 00-10 to 00-20, yellow-tinted. Ultra-soft formulation for fat layer compression. | |
| Blood vessel wall | Yes | Yes | PDA Ligation Simulator | Shore A 20–40 thin-wall tubing. Accepts sutures; realistic needle resistance. | |
| Cricothyroid membrane | Gauger Cricothyroidotomy Trainer | Medical-grade silicone used for 3D-printed laryngotracheal model fabricated from adult-patient CT data at the University of Michigan (Gauger et al. 2018). | |||
| Thyroid cartilage | Gauger Cricothyroidotomy Trainer | Integrated landmark of the 3D-printed medical-grade silicone laryngotracheal model; palpable superior landmark for the cricothyroid membrane (Gauger et al. 2018). | |||
| Cricoid cartilage | Gauger Cricothyroidotomy Trainer | Integrated landmark of the 3D-printed medical-grade silicone laryngotracheal model; palpable inferior landmark for the cricothyroid membrane (Gauger et al. 2018). | |||
| Trachea | Gauger Cricothyroidotomy Trainer | Integrated region of the 3D-printed medical-grade silicone laryngotracheal model; downstream airway lumen for Meditech Rapid-O2 jet oxygen bolus (Gauger et al. 2018). | |||
| Liver | Partial | Partial | Fernandes Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator | Cast from plaster mold of real anatomical specimen; fixed in anatomical position with hot glue (Fernandes et al. 2023).[1] | |
| Spleen | Partial | Partial | Fernandes Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator | Cast from plaster mold of real anatomical specimen; fixed in anatomical position (Fernandes et al. 2023).[1] | |
| Stomach | Partial | Partial | Fernandes Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator | Cast from plaster mold of real anatomical specimen; peritoneal organ positioned after retroperitoneal structures (Fernandes et al. 2023).[1] | |
| Kidney | Partial | Partial | Fernandes Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator | Cast from plaster mold of real anatomical specimen; retroperitoneal positioning with renal arteries and veins (Fernandes et al. 2023).[1] | |
| Pancreas | Partial | Partial | Fernandes Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator | Cast from plaster mold of real anatomical specimen; retroperitoneal organ positioned behind stomach (Fernandes et al. 2023).[1] | |
| Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue | Partial | Partial | Almeida Suture Simulator | Acetic silicone (20 g) mixed with maize starch (11 g) to form a 6 cm circular suture pad; provides suturable surface but no skin layer differentiation (Almeida et al. 2023).[2] | |
| Trachea | Partial | Partial | Kovatch Pediatric FONA Simulator | CT-derived 3D pediatric (5-year-old) airway anatomy cast in Shore 45 silicone; palpable tracheal rings (Kovatch et al. 2020).[3] | |
| Cricothyroid Membrane | Partial | Partial | Kovatch Pediatric FONA Simulator | Procedural target for needle cricothyroidotomy; experts rated tissue "softness" 3.17 on the 4-point scale, lowest-scoring item in validation (Kovatch et al. 2020).[3] | |
| Thyroid Cartilage | Partial | Partial | Kovatch Pediatric FONA Simulator | Palpable anatomical landmark confirmed by expert validation (Kovatch et al. 2020).[3] | |
| Cricoid Cartilage | Partial | Partial | Kovatch Pediatric FONA Simulator | Palpable anatomical landmark confirmed by expert validation (Kovatch et al. 2020).[3] | |
| Hard palate mucoperiosteum | Cleft Palate Repair Simulator (Nicholas) | Single liftable silicone layer cast on the reusable 3D-printed VeroWhite skeletal base, representing the hard-palate oral mucosa with attached periosteum for vomerine mucosal flap dissection. Silicone shore hardness per layer is not specified in the source paper. Source: Nicholas R et al. 2022, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 75:3817–3825. DOI 10.1016/j.bjps.2022.06.079. PMID 36068135. | |||
| Soft palate oral mucosa | Cleft Palate Repair Simulator (Nicholas) | Silicone layer cast on the reusable VeroWhite skeletal base, representing the oral surface of the soft palate. Silicone shore hardness not specified in the source paper. Source: Nicholas R et al. 2022, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 75:3817–3825. DOI 10.1016/j.bjps.2022.06.079. PMID 36068135. | |||
| Soft palate nasal mucosa | Cleft Palate Repair Simulator (Nicholas) | Silicone layer cast on the reusable VeroWhite skeletal base, representing the nasal surface of the soft palate. Silicone shore hardness not specified in the source paper. Source: Nicholas R et al. 2022, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 75:3817–3825. DOI 10.1016/j.bjps.2022.06.079. PMID 36068135. | |||
| Velar musculature | Cleft Palate Repair Simulator (Nicholas) | Silicone layer cast on the reusable VeroWhite skeletal base, representing the levator veli palatini and tensor veli palatini — the muscular targets of intra-velar veloplasty. Silicone shore hardness not specified in the source paper. Source: Nicholas R et al. 2022, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 75:3817–3825. DOI 10.1016/j.bjps.2022.06.079. PMID 36068135. | |||
| Urethra | Urinary Catheterization Simulator (Gillis) | Silicon urethral tube of approximately 178 mm length and 7 mm internal diameter (specific silicone grade not stated in source); attaches via FDM-printed PLA curved barbed connector to Grey Pro SLA-printed one-way valve body. Source: Gillis CJ, Bishop N, Walsh G, Harvey D 2020, Cureus 12(5):e8377. DOI 10.7759/cureus.8377. PMID 32626621. PMC PMC7328704. | |||
| Penis | Urinary Catheterization Simulator (Gillis) | Smooth-On 00-30 platinum-cure silicone (Smooth-On, Inc., Easton, Pennsylvania) cast over a mould to produce the external genitalia. 00-30 Shore A durometer matches soft-tissue compliance required for the operator to grip, retract, and angulate the penile shaft during catheter insertion. Source: Gillis CJ, Bishop N, Walsh G, Harvey D 2020, Cureus 12(5):e8377. DOI 10.7759/cureus.8377. PMID 32626621. PMC PMC7328704. | |||
| Diaphragm | Partial | Partial | Thoracoscopic Diaphragmatic Hernia Repair Simulator (Barsness) | Platinum-cured silicone rubber cast as artificial neonatal diaphragm with posterior lateral defect, anchored to the 3D-printed rib cage with eyehooks installed around the 11th rib. Source-rated 3.83 / 5 realism. $2 (2013 USD) combined cost with the artificial intestines. Source: Barsness KA, Rooney DM, Davis LM 2013, J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech 23(8):714–718. DOI 10.1089/lap.2013.0196. PMID 23789735. | |
| Skin | Partial | Partial | Thoracoscopic Diaphragmatic Hernia Repair Simulator (Barsness) | Synthetic silicone rubber skin overlay covering the entire neonatal CDH simulator apparatus; consumable component replaced between course participants at approximately $8 each (2013 USD). Source-rated 3.88 / 5 realism. Source: Barsness KA, Rooney DM, Davis LM 2013, J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech 23(8):714–718. DOI 10.1089/lap.2013.0196. PMID 23789735. | |
| Bile Duct | Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy Simulator (Casas-Murillo) | P53 Silicone Rubber cast in a 2-part Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene negative mold designed in SolidWorks 2016. Models the extrahepatic biliary system in one normal cystic-duct anatomy and three insertion variants for laparoscopic cholecystectomy training. Source: Casas-Murillo C et al. 2021, Surg Radiol Anat 43(4):537–544. DOI 10.1007/s00276-020-02631-3. PMID 33386458. | |||
| Gallbladder | Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy Simulator (Casas-Murillo) | P53 Silicone Rubber cast continuous with the bile-duct silicone in a single 2-part negative mold; held in position by a wire pulling the gallbladder over the liver scaffold. Source-rated overall Texture 4.5/5 and Consistency 4.3/5 on the aggregate simulator (Likert-5, n=13). Source: Casas-Murillo C et al. 2021, Surg Radiol Anat 43(4):537–544. DOI 10.1007/s00276-020-02631-3. PMID 33386458. | |||
| Cystic Artery | Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy Simulator (Casas-Murillo) | P53 Silicone Rubber cast together with the right hepatic artery in a separate 2-part Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene mold; stapled to the gallbladder. Source: Casas-Murillo C et al. 2021, Surg Radiol Anat 43(4):537–544. DOI 10.1007/s00276-020-02631-3. PMID 33386458. | |||
| Skin | Pediatric Inguinal Hernia Repair Simulator (Heo) | Ecoflex 00-30 silicone cast over a layer of power mesh fabric forms the skin and external oblique aponeurosis substrate; resilient and suture-compatible. Source: Heo et al. 2025, J Pediatr Surg 60:162232. | |||
| Preperitoneal Fat | Pediatric Inguinal Hernia Repair Simulator (Heo) | Ecoflex 00-30 silicone cast in a dedicated mold to form modular preperitoneal-fat wedges integrated into the cartridge assembly. Source: Heo et al. 2025, J Pediatr Surg 60:162232. | |||
| Cremaster Muscle | Pediatric Inguinal Hernia Repair Simulator (Heo) | Red threads embedded in a silicone cast simulate the cremaster muscle that envelops the hernia sac during cartridge assembly. Source: Heo et al. 2025, J Pediatr Surg 60:162232. | |||
| Liver | - | - | - | Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator (Fernandes) |
Troubleshooting
- Settings without mold-making capability — Requires molds, mixing equipment, and curing time. Use pre-made products or simpler materials instead.
- Rapid prototyping needs — Cure time is 4–24 hours. Plan production in advance or use quick-set alternatives like gelatin.
- Budget-constrained programs — Higher upfront costs. Consider cost-per-use; economical for high-volume training only.
Alternatives
| Alternative | Best For | Trade-offs |
|---|---|---|
| Gelatin Mix | Quick preparation, self-healing | Limited durability; melts in warmth |
| Latex | Lower cost, good elasticity | Allergy risk; degrades over time |
| Sponge | Very low cost, colour match | Does not replicate tissue feel; tears easily |
| PVC plastisol | Lower cost alternative | Less realistic feel |
Used In Simulators
| Simulator | Purpose | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Fernandes Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator | Tissue-simulating material | Silicone rubber cast from plaster molds of real anatomical specimens to create liver, spleen, stomach, kidney, and pancreas organ models (Fernandes et al. 2023).[1] |
| Almeida Suture Simulator | Tissue-simulating material | Acetic silicone (20 g) mixed with maize starch (11 g), air-dried 48 hours to form a low-cost suture training pad costing less than R$1.53 per unit (Almeida et al. 2023).[2] |
| Kovatch Pediatric FONA Simulator | Tissue-simulating material | Medical grade silicone (Shore 45) cast into a two-part PLA mold and cured at 60 °C for 6 hours to produce a pediatric (5-year-old) laryngotracheal framework with palpable tracheal rings, thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, and cricothyroid membrane (Kovatch et al. 2020).[3] |
| Pediatric Inguinal Hernia Repair Simulator (Heo) | Tissue-simulating material | Ecoflex 00-30 silicone cast over power mesh fabric forms the skin and external oblique aponeurosis substrate; cast alone in dedicated molds for preperitoneal fat; embedded with red threads to simulate the cremaster muscle. Source: Heo et al. 2025, J Pediatr Surg 60:162232. |
References
[edit source]- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Fernandes CO, Rodrigues LR, Silva do Amaral MLBS, de Morais Rodrigues SJ, Marton-Filho MA. Low-cost simulator for intra-abdominal bleeding. Rev Col Bras Cir 2023;50:e20233512. DOI: 10.1590/0100-6991e-20233512-en. PMID: 37971114. PMC: PMC10618030.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Almeida NRC, Braga JP, Bentes LGB, Lemos RS, Fernandes MRN, Andrade GL, Araújo VMM, Santos DRD, Yasojima EY. Low-cost suture simulator to gain basic surgical skills. Acta Cir Bras 2023;38:e384223. DOI: 10.1590/acb384223. PMID: 37851786.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Kovatch KJ, Powell AR, Green K, Reighard CL, Green GE, Gauger VT, Rooney DM, Zopf DA. Development and Multidisciplinary Preliminary Validation of a 3-Dimensional-Printed Pediatric Airway Model for Emergency Airway Front-of-Neck Access Procedures. Anesth Analg 2020;130(2):445–451. DOI: 10.1213/ANE.0000000000003774. PMID 30234534.
At a Glance
Overview
[edit source]Silicone provides consistent, durable tissue models for surgical simulation. Available in a wide range of durometers (Shore 00-10 to Shore A 40+), enabling formulation for soft tissues (fat, vessels) through firm structures (organ surfaces). Two-part platinum-cure systems (e.g. Smooth-On Ecoflex, Dragon Skin) are most common in simulation. Indefinite shelf life at room temperature; tolerates hundreds of use sessions without degradation.
Synonyms
[edit source]Common names: Silicone rubber, PDMS, Polydimethylsiloxane, Two-part silicone, Platinum-cure silicone, RTV silicone
Trade names: Dragon Skin, Ecoflex, Ecoflex 00-30, Smooth-On, Smooth-Sil, Silastic
Regional terms: Silicone (French), Silicone (Italian), Silicona (Spanish), Silikon (German), Siliconen (Dutch)
Forms: Silicone sheet, silicone tubing, silicone mold, liquid silicone, cured silicone, medical-grade silicone
Shelf Life & Storage
| Temp Range | Humidity | Surface Reuse | Shelf Life | Spoilage |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ambient (15–25 °C) | Dry (<60%) | Hundreds of sessions | 2+ years unopened | None (remains stable) |
Background
Clinical Context for Simulation
[edit source]Processing & Preparation
[edit source]Safety Considerations
[edit source]Related Materials
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