TissueDB/Materials/Silicone, Castable
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License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 by Pfehrman
Silicone (polydimethylsiloxane/PDMS) is a two-part elastomer used in surgical simulation to create durable soft tissue models. It is poured as a liquid silicone rubber and cures in the mould into a solid, flexible part. Silicone can be formulated to match mechanical properties of various tissues by adjusting durometer (hardness), and accepts pigmentation to replicate tissue colours.
Tissues
| Tissue | Visual | Tactile | Simulator | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Skin | ALL-SAFE Trocar Placement, Z-Plasty Simulator, AmoSmile Physical Simulator, Thoracoscopic Diaphragmatic Hernia Repair Simulator (Barsness), Pediatric Inguinal Hernia Repair Simulator (Heo), Chest Tube Insertion Simulator (Brannan) | For skin, authors specify Shore 00-30 to 00-50 (e.g. Ecoflex 00-30); Dragon Skin 10 also used. Several add skin-tone pigment for colour match; typically considered suture-compatible. In the Brannan chest-tube laminate the top skin layer is Ecoflex 00-30 and the innermost, ribcage-facing layer is Dragon Skin 10; layer thickness and pour depth are not specified in the source.[1] | ||
| Adipose tissue | AmoSmile Physical Simulator | Use softer mixes for fat (Shore 00-10 to 00-20), yellow-tinted. Ultra-soft formulation for fat layer compression. | ||
| Cricothyroid membrane | Partial | Gauger Cricothyroidotomy Trainer, Kovatch Pediatric FONA Simulator | Used for the Cricothyroid-membrane region of the medical-grade silicone laryngotracheal model.[2] | |
| Thyroid cartilage | Partial | Gauger Cricothyroidotomy Trainer, Kovatch Pediatric FONA Simulator | Simulates the Thyroid-cartilage landmark of the medical-grade silicone laryngotracheal model.[2] | |
| Cricoid cartilage | Partial | Gauger Cricothyroidotomy Trainer, Kovatch Pediatric FONA Simulator | Used for the Cricoid-cartilage landmark of the medical-grade silicone laryngotracheal model.[2] | |
| Trachea | Partial | Gauger Cricothyroidotomy Trainer, Kovatch Pediatric FONA Simulator | Medical-grade silicone laryngotracheal airway model; Kovatch model cast in Shore 45.[2] | |
| Liver | Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator (Fernandes) | Cast from plaster mold of real anatomical specimen; fixed in anatomical position with hot glue (Fernandes et al. 2023).[3] | ||
| Spleen | Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator (Fernandes) | Cast from plaster mold of real anatomical specimen; fixed in anatomical position (Fernandes et al. 2023).[3] | ||
| Stomach | Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator (Fernandes) | Cast from plaster mold of real anatomical specimen; peritoneal organ positioned after retroperitoneal structures (Fernandes et al. 2023).[3] | ||
| Kidney | Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator (Fernandes) | Cast from plaster mold of real anatomical specimen; retroperitoneal positioning with renal arteries and veins (Fernandes et al. 2023).[3] | ||
| Pancreas | Intra-abdominal Bleeding Simulator (Fernandes) | Cast from plaster mold of real anatomical specimen; retroperitoneal organ positioned behind stomach (Fernandes et al. 2023).[3] | ||
| Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue | Almeida Suture Simulator | Acetic silicone (20 g) mixed with maize starch (11 g) to form a 6 cm circular suture pad; provides suturable surface but no skin layer differentiation (Almeida et al. 2023).[4] | ||
| Hard palate mucoperiosteum | Cleft Palate Repair Simulator (Nicholas) | Single liftable silicone layer cast on the reusable 3D-printed VeroWhite skeletal base, representing the hard-palate oral mucosa with attached periosteum for vomerine mucosal flap dissection. Silicone shore hardness per layer is not specified in the source paper. Source: Nicholas R et al. 2022, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 75:3817–3825. DOI 10.1016/j.bjps.2022.06.079. PMID 36068135. | ||
| Soft palate oral mucosa | Cleft Palate Repair Simulator (Nicholas) | Silicone layer cast on the reusable VeroWhite skeletal base, representing the oral surface of the soft palate. Silicone shore hardness not specified in the source paper. Source: Nicholas R et al. 2022, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 75:3817–3825. DOI 10.1016/j.bjps.2022.06.079. PMID 36068135. | ||
| Soft palate nasal mucosa | Cleft Palate Repair Simulator (Nicholas) | Silicone layer cast on the reusable VeroWhite skeletal base, representing the nasal surface of the soft palate. Silicone shore hardness not specified in the source paper. Source: Nicholas R et al. 2022, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 75:3817–3825. DOI 10.1016/j.bjps.2022.06.079. PMID 36068135. | ||
| Velar musculature | Cleft Palate Repair Simulator (Nicholas) | Silicone layer cast on the reusable VeroWhite skeletal base, representing the levator veli palatini and tensor veli palatini — the muscular targets of intra-velar veloplasty. Silicone shore hardness not specified in the source paper. Source: Nicholas R et al. 2022, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 75:3817–3825. DOI 10.1016/j.bjps.2022.06.079. PMID 36068135. | ||
| Urethra | Urinary Catheterization Simulator (Gillis) | Silicon urethral tube of approximately 178 mm length and 7 mm internal diameter (specific silicone grade not stated in source); attaches via FDM-printed PLA curved barbed connector to Grey Pro SLA-printed one-way valve body. Source: Gillis CJ, Bishop N, Walsh G, Harvey D 2020, Cureus 12(5):e8377. DOI 10.7759/cureus.8377. PMID 32626621. PMC PMC7328704. | ||
| Penis | Urinary Catheterization Simulator (Gillis) | Smooth-On 00-30 platinum-cure silicone (Smooth-On, Inc., Easton, Pennsylvania) cast over a mould to produce the external genitalia. 00-30 Shore A durometer matches soft-tissue compliance required for the operator to grip, retract, and angulate the penile shaft during catheter insertion. Source: Gillis CJ, Bishop N, Walsh G, Harvey D 2020, Cureus 12(5):e8377. DOI 10.7759/cureus.8377. PMID 32626621. PMC PMC7328704. | ||
| Diaphragm | Thoracoscopic Diaphragmatic Hernia Repair Simulator (Barsness) | Platinum-cured silicone rubber cast as artificial neonatal diaphragm with posterior lateral defect, anchored to the 3D-printed rib cage with eyehooks installed around the 11th rib. Source-rated 3.83 / 5 realism. $2 (2013 USD) combined cost with the artificial intestines. Source: Barsness KA, Rooney DM, Davis LM 2013, J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech 23(8):714–718. DOI 10.1089/lap.2013.0196. PMID 23789735. | ||
| Bile Duct | Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy Simulator (Casas-Murillo) | P53 Silicone Rubber cast in a 2-part Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene negative mold designed in SolidWorks 2016. Models the extrahepatic biliary system in one normal cystic-duct anatomy and three insertion variants for laparoscopic cholecystectomy training. Source: Casas-Murillo C et al. 2021, Surg Radiol Anat 43(4):537–544. DOI 10.1007/s00276-020-02631-3. PMID 33386458. | ||
| Gallbladder | Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy Simulator (Casas-Murillo) | P53 Silicone Rubber cast continuous with the bile-duct silicone in a single 2-part negative mold; held in position by a wire pulling the gallbladder over the liver scaffold. Source-rated overall Texture 4.5/5 and Consistency 4.3/5 on the aggregate simulator (Likert-5, n=13). Source: Casas-Murillo C et al. 2021, Surg Radiol Anat 43(4):537–544. DOI 10.1007/s00276-020-02631-3. PMID 33386458. | ||
| Cystic Artery | Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy Simulator (Casas-Murillo) | P53 Silicone Rubber cast together with the right hepatic artery in a separate 2-part Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene mold; stapled to the gallbladder. Source: Casas-Murillo C et al. 2021, Surg Radiol Anat 43(4):537–544. DOI 10.1007/s00276-020-02631-3. PMID 33386458. | ||
| Preperitoneal Fat | Pediatric Inguinal Hernia Repair Simulator (Heo) | Ecoflex 00-30 silicone cast in a dedicated mold to form modular preperitoneal-fat wedges integrated into the cartridge assembly. Source: Heo et al. 2025, J Pediatr Surg 60:162232. | ||
| Cremaster Muscle | Pediatric Inguinal Hernia Repair Simulator (Heo) | Red threads embedded in a silicone cast simulate the cremaster muscle that envelops the hernia sac during cartridge assembly. Source: Heo et al. 2025, J Pediatr Surg 60:162232. | ||
| Brain (cerebral parenchyma) | STA-MCA Bypass Trainer (Akdag) | Cast in a 3D-printed hemispheric mould as the left-hemisphere cerebral parenchyma for end-to-side STA–MCA bypass practice; embedded force-sensitive resistors flag heavy brain contact. Silicone grade not specified in source. Source: Akdag BA et al. 2024, World Neurosurgery 190:e665–e674. DOI 10.1016/j.wneu.2024.07.200. PMID 39098505. | ||
| Vocal Fold | Injection Laryngoplasty Simulator (Lee) | Ecoflex 00-20 mixed 1:1, pigmented with Silc-Pig flesh tone, cast in a CT-derived PLA mould as the endolaryngeal vocal-fold insert, cured 4 hours at room temperature (Lee et al. 2021).[5] | ||
| Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue (middle layer) | Brannan Chest Tube Simulator | Soma Foama 15, a Smooth-On two-part platinum-cure expanding silicone foam. Per Brannan 2021: "the middle SmoothOn's expanding silicone foam SomaFoma15." Centre layer of a three-layer silicone laminate providing subcutaneous-tissue bulk and compliance between the outer (Ecoflex 00-30) and inner (Dragon Skin 10) skin layers. It expands roughly two to three times its liquid volume during cure to a soft, low-density closed-cell foam (Shore 00 hardness class). Layer thickness, pour depth, and expansion ratio in the final build are not specified in the source paper.[1] | ||
| Bowel | Bowel Anastomosis Simulator (Habti) | Ecoflex 00-30 cast in a 3D-printed mould as a single-layer 30 cm bowel segment with surface mucosal texture for hand-sewn anastomosis training. Clinicians confirmed the prototype was "representative of the small bowel anastomosis tissue, especially the replicated mucosae."[6] |
Troubleshooting
- Settings without mold-making capability — Requires molds, mixing equipment, and curing time. Use pre-made products or simpler materials instead.
- Rapid prototyping needs — Cure time is 4–24 hours. Plan production in advance or use quick-set alternatives like gelatin.
- Budget-constrained programs — Higher upfront costs. Consider cost-per-use; economical for high-volume training only.
Alternatives
| Alternative | Best For | Trade-offs |
|---|---|---|
| Gelatin Mix | Quick preparation, self-healing | Limited durability; melts in warmth |
| Latex | Lower cost, good elasticity | Allergy risk; degrades over time |
| Sponge | Very low cost, colour match | Does not replicate tissue feel; tears easily |
| PVC plastisol | Lower cost alternative | Less realistic feel |
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Brannan V, Dunne CL, Dubrowski A, Parsons MH (2021). "Development of a novel 3D-printed multifunctional thorax model simulator for the simulation-based training of tube thoracostomy." CJEM 23:547–550. DOI: 10.1007/s43678-021-00102-1. PMID: 33783760.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Kovatch KJ, Powell AR, Green K, Reighard CL, Green GE, Gauger VT, Rooney DM, Zopf DA. Development and Multidisciplinary Preliminary Validation of a 3-Dimensional-Printed Pediatric Airway Model for Emergency Airway Front-of-Neck Access Procedures. Anesth Analg 2020;130(2):445–451. DOI: 10.1213/ANE.0000000000003774. PMID 30234534.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Fernandes CO, Rodrigues LR, Silva do Amaral MLBS, de Morais Rodrigues SJ, Marton-Filho MA. Low-cost simulator for intra-abdominal bleeding. Rev Col Bras Cir 2023;50:e20233512. DOI: 10.1590/0100-6991e-20233512-en. PMID: 37971114. PMC: PMC10618030.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Almeida NRC, Braga JP, Bentes LGB, Lemos RS, Fernandes MRN, Andrade GL, Araújo VMM, Santos DRD, Yasojima EY. Low-cost suture simulator to gain basic surgical skills. Acta Cir Bras 2023;38:e384223. DOI: 10.1590/acb384223. PMID: 37851786.
- ↑ Lee M, Ang C, Andreadis K, Shin J, Rameau A. An open-source three-dimensionally printed laryngeal model for injection laryngoplasty training. Laryngoscope 2021;131(3):E890–E895. DOI: 10.1002/lary.28952. PMID: 32750164.
- ↑ Habti M, Bénard F, Arutiunian A, Bérubé S, Cadoret D, Meloche-Dumas L, Torres A, Kapralos B, Mercier F, Dubrowski A, Patocskai E (2021). "Development and Learner-Based Assessment of a Novel, Customized, 3D Printed Small Bowel Simulator for Hand-Sewn Anastomosis Training." Cureus 13(12):e20536. DOI: 10.7759/cureus.20536. PMID: 35070566.