Ground mount fixed tilt PV racking literature review/Vibrations & Seismic Requirements

[Impact Strength of Materials]^[1][edit | edit source]

[Engineering Mechanics and Design Applications Transdisciplinary Engineering Fundamentals]^[2][edit | edit source]

[Design Engineer's Handbook]^[3][edit | edit source]

Mechanics of Materials^[4][edit | edit source]

Vibrations & Seismic Requirements[edit | edit source]

[Mechanical vibrations]^[5][edit | edit source]

[Vibration of Structures: Applications in Civil Engineering Design]^[6][edit | edit source]

[The Seismic Design Handbook]^[7][edit | edit source]

STRUCTURAL SEISMIC REQUIREMENTS AND COMMENTARY FOR ROOFTOP SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS^[8][edit | edit source]

Snow Loading[edit | edit source]

Determining Wind & Snow Loads on Solar Panels^[9][edit | edit source]

Building Codes & Guides[edit | edit source]

[ASCE 7-05 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures]^[10][edit | edit source]

SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC INSTALLATION GUIDELINE^[11][edit | edit source]

Sustainable Applications[edit | edit source]

Photovoltaics — a path to sustainable futures[edit | edit source]

Abstract: As both population and energy use per capita increase, modern society is approaching physical limits to its continued fossil fuel consumption. The immediate limits are set by the planet's ability to adapt to a changing atmospheric chemical composition, not the availability of resources. In order for a future society to be sustainable while operating at or above our current standard of living a shift away from carbon based energy sources must occur. An overview of the current state of active solar (photovoltaic, PV) energy technology is provided here to outline a partial solution for the environmental problems caused by accelerating global energy expenditure. The technical, social, and economic benefits and limitations of PV technologies to provide electricity in both off-grid and on-grid applications is critically analyzed in the context of this shift in energy sources. It is shown that PV electrical production is a technologically feasible, economically viable, environmentally benign, sustainable, and socially equitable solution to society's future energy requirements.

Solar Energy for Rural Madagascar Schools: A Pilot Implementation by University of Nebraska Engineers Without Borders-USA[edit | edit source]

Abstract:A pilot photovoltaic system was constructed in Kianjavato, Madagascar by a team from the University of Nebraska Engineers Without Borders-USA Student Chapter. This project represents an integrated approach to energy supply, education and natural resource conservation. The system supplies power to ten 13 W fluorescent tubes in a primary school classroom for the purpose of extending public school hours into the evening for adult education. The project was implemented in partnership with a Malagasy non-governmental organization, the Madagascar Biodiversity Partnership. Future monitoring data will determine the outcome of the project and aid in the design of additional installations in the community.

Photovoltaic Panels On Greened Roofs -Positive Interaction Between Two Elements Of Sustainable Architecture[edit | edit source]

Abstract: The cultural center "UFA-Fabrik" in Berlin-Tempelhof has been known for years for its use of ecological technology. The original structures were completely renovated in 1984 and fitted with greened roofs at that time. Today the entire complex includes ca. 4,000 m2 of greened roofs. Since 1992 a monitoring program has tracked development of the vegetation, microclimate and retention of precipitation. The first solar panels were installed on the UFA Factory in 1998. A year later, an array consisting of ten 2 kWp photovoltaic panels was added on a greened roof. One part of the monitoring includes tracking the efficiency of fixed versus steered panels; another regards the interaction between the greened roof and the photovoltaic panels. While this is a preliminary report, several tendencies seem clear: the tracked solar panels are generating ca. 10 – 15% more electricity than the fixed ones. The greened roof is notably cooler than conventional bituminous roofs: While lower temperatures lead to higher voltages at silicon based photovoltaic panels, the electricity generation of PV on green roof is higher than on conventional roofs. We are in the process of quantifying that fact. Due to construction activity accompanying the installation of the array it was difficult to evaluate the vegetation during the first year; however, from the second year on investigation of the vegetation under the panel indicates significantly improved growth of the species relative to plant height and foliage density. There also appears to be a change in species from small plants (e.g. Sedum) toward larger ones such as Artemisia.

• PV power gen higher on green roof (op. temp.) + increased plant growth (shade)
• Higher temp on conventional roof

Pathways to electricity for all: What makes village-scale solar power successful?^[12][edit | edit source]

Abstract: This article presents new empirical research on what it takes to provide enduring access to affordable, reliable and useful electricity services for all. We analyze and synthesize the long-term experiences with three different systems for village-scale solar power supply in India, Senegal and Kenya. Since this scale of electricity provision forms part of village infrastructure, it requires particular types of knowledge, policies and support mechanisms. This research therefore investigates how village-scale solar systems can be designed, implemented, sustained and replicated in ways that make them accessible and useful for the community members. Drawing on a socio-technical and practice-oriented approach, we show that the electricity system's degree of adaptedness to its social context affects many important qualities of the system such as the relevance of the available electricity services for the people, the system's operational and economic sustainability and the potential for replication. Achieving such adaptation notably requires a flexible approach on the part of implementers, funders and local actors before, during and after implementation. We also show the need for institutionalization of decentralized electricity provision, discuss the current ambiguities in policies, regulations and funding mechanisms for village-scale solar power, and provide recommendations to policy makers and donors.

Development of Practical Applications for RepRap Style 3-D Printers in Engineering^[13][edit | edit source]

Abstract: The current rise in popularity of consumer level 3-D printers introduces a need to understand the application and material property capabilities of the technology. Presented here is data demonstrating the ability for the average U.S. consumer to recuperate the cost of a 3-D printer within one year of ownership. Additionally, using a consumer level 3-D printer, multiple photovoltaic (PV) racking systems were printed and produced with much lower cost compared to commercially available aluminum racking. Additionally, mechanical testing on 3-D printed components showed a temperature dependence on both percent crystallinity and ultimate tensile strength. Conclusions are drawn using the information to describe the potential uses and applications of RepRap (Self Replicating Rapid Prototyper) style 3-D printers and their validity as an engineering tool.

• Ability of US consumer to recuperate the cost of the 3D printer within a year of ownership
• PV mounting printed and compared to aluminum racking (cost)
• Temp dependence on crystallinity and tensile strength
• RepRap, Self-Replicating Rapid-Prototyper
• Based on decentralization: all hardware and software freely available
• Presents novel PV racking for RV use. Analyzed strength of material and response to wind load
• Explains history and structure of a RepRap unit
• Cost of materials and time to construct quantified
• Life-cycle economic analysis, developmental trends (including env impact), and comparison with commercial 3D printers discussed
• Details cost calculations
• Lists 3D design database websites
• 20 items chosen
• Energy per mass and energy per time values shown (linearly related)
• Energy is a much larger operating consideration for off grid and developing countries applications
• Discuses impacts and implications of more inexpensive at home 3D printing
• Chapter 3: Distributed Manufacturing with 3-D Printing: A Case Study of Recreational Vehicle Solar Photovoltaic Mounting Systems
• THIS CHAPTER WAS PREVIOUSLY READ. SEE (Wittbrodt, Laureto and Tymark)
• Chapter 4: Total Cost Evaluation of Low-Weight Tension-Based Photovoltaic Flat-Roof Mounted Racking
• World uses 17.1 TW continuous power annually
• PV can liberate us from non-renewables. To incentivize business adoption lower cost
• Make use of large flat rooftops
• Rooftop installation prevented by over-designed racking and prohibitive economic cost
• Breaks down economic costs and returns
• Analyzes pre-existing commercial solar racking deigned for flat rooftop
• Investigates tension based system as it does not use rails (X-wire)
• No codes or standards-so most racking is over designed
• Static loads 5-10lbs/ft2 and often concentrated into a small area Dynamic loads much larger (wind, snow, maintenance people) [23] S. Barkaszi, C. O'Brien, Wind Load Calculations for PV Arrays. Solar American Board for Codes and *Standards Report, June 2010.
• Ballasted roof mounting systems requires ~6.25 lb/ft2 of ballast + racking compinents vs a roof penetrating system (1lb/ft2)
• Systems tested for single installer
• X-wire racking fabricated with reprap
• [25] Unirac. Design and Engineering Guide. http://web.archive.org/web/20140701132523/http://unirac.com/sites/default/files/rm_de.pdf (Accessed 13 June 2014)
• Dynamic load to be determined from other sources as "wind tables do not readily exist for inclined PV panels"
• Following ASCE Standard 7-05 [22] S. Barkaszi, C. O'Brien, Wind Load Calculations for PV Arrays. Solar American Board for Codes and Standards Report, June 2010.
• [36] [37] [36] ICC. Structural Design. Chaper 16. 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20160910070301/http://www2.iccsafe.org:80/states/newjersey/nj_building/PDFs/NJ_Bldg_Chapter16.pdf [37] ASCE. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. Standards ASCE/SEI 7-10. 2013.
• Chapter 5: 3-D Printing Solar Photovoltaic Racking in Developing World
• Reprap is very inexpensive now.
• Description of current situation of poverty
• Access to electricity accelerates development [16]
• Study evaluates economic and tech viability of 3d printed mounting system
• Plastic waste determined, tested outdoors 1 year, economic analysis performed
• Designed in OpenSCAD
• Uses X-wire system
• Survived UP winter
• Economic analysis, X-wire is cost effective
• Lifespan important-UV plastic degradation
• Chapter 6: The Effects of PLA Color on Material Properties of 3-D Printed Components

Addressing Energy Poverty in India: A systems perspective on the role of localization, affordability, and saturation in implementing solar technologies^[14][edit | edit source]

Abstract: Decentralized solar photovoltaic (PV) systems have emerged as an option in unelectrified rural areas for clean lighting and reduced kerosene use. Despite benefits, there are significant barriers to implement and sustain solar PV systems because of inadequate understanding of the feedback between adoption, diffusion, and implementation processes in resource poor communities of low and middle income countries. We analyze the social-behavioral and solar lamp assembly and distribution processes involved in implementing a million solar lamps in rural India and present a novel system dynamics framework to understand solar lamp technology implementation in India and other countries of South Asia. Our framework of three inter-locked subsystems – Localization, Affordability, and Saturation – explains how localization, affordability, and saturation emerge from a structure of feedback mechanisms and interact to drive adoption and sustained use of solar PV systems in resource poor communities. A system dynamics approach highlights the importance of understanding feedback and interdependence of these factors, provides tangible insights for future decentralized solar lamp and solar home product deployments.

• 1.2 billion people in world lack electricity
• Kerosene for home generators
• Households can't afford electricity =>distribution companies low priority rural place
• Solar: decentralized, easy management, enough energy for light, portable, no indoor pollution
• Indian govt launched PV initiatives
• Lack of adoption
• Lack of variety of solar products in rural setting
• Better understanding of barriers needed
• Literature mentions barriers to diffusion and adoption. Tech, social, financial factors [26]
• Performance issues-unreliability of service maintenance, improper installation, improper usage
• Systems dynamics-causal maps and quantitative modeling to understand a complex system
• Million Solar Study Lamps Program used to derive the Localization, Affordability, and Saturation (LAS) framework
• Describes overarching LAS system and subsequent subsystems

Economics, Finance, Policy[edit | edit source]

Toward cost-effective solar energy use[edit | edit source]

Abstract: At present, solar energy conversion technologies face cost and scalability hurdles in the technologies required for a complete energy system. To provide a truly widespread primary energy source, solar energy must be captured, converted, and stored in a cost-effective fashion. New developments in nanotechnology, biotechnology, and the materials and physical sciences may enable step-change approaches to cost-effective, globally scalable systems for solar energy use.

Tracking the Sun VI: An Historical Summary of the Installed Price of Photovoltaics in the United States from 1998 to 2012[edit | edit source]

A review of solar photovoltaic levelized cost of electricity[edit | edit source]

Description: As the solar photovoltaic (PV) matures, the economic feasibility of PV projects is increasingly being evaluated using the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) generation in order to be compared to other electricity generation technologies. Unfortunately, there is lack of clarity of reporting assumptions, justifications and degree of completeness in LCOE calculations, which produces widely varying and contradictory results. This paper reviews the methodology of properly calculating the LCOE for solar PV, correcting the misconceptions made in the assumptions found throughout the literature. Then a template is provided for better reporting of LCOE results for PV needed to influence policy mandates or make invest decisions. A numerical example is provided with variable ranges to test sensitivity, allowing for conclusions to be drawn on the most important variables. Grid parity is considered when the LCOE of solar PV is comparable with grid electrical prices of conventional technologies and is the industry target for cost-effectiveness. Given the state of the art in the technology and favourable financing terms it is clear that PV has already obtained grid parity in specific locations and as installed costs continue to decline, grid electricity prices continue to escalate, and industry experience increases, PV will become an increasingly economically advantageous source of electricity over expanding geographical regions.

Peer-to-peer financing mechanisms to accelerate renewable energy deployment[edit | edit source]

Future Global Energy Prosperity: The Terawatt Challenge[edit | edit source]

Description: Innovations in nanotechnology and other advances in materials science would make it possible to transform our vision of plentiful, low-cost energy into a reality. By developing new technologies, marshaling the excellent resources of organizations like the Materials Research Society, and developing the talents of a new generation of scientists and engineers, I believe that we can solve even our most critical energy problems.

EIA: Annual Energy Outlook Through 2040[edit | edit source]

Description: The share of U.S. energy produc tion from crude oil and lease condensate is shown to rise from 19% in 2013 to 25% in 2040 in the high oil and gas resource case, as compared with no change in the reference case. Dry natural gas production remains the largest contributor to total U.S. energy production through 2040 in all the AEO2015 cases, with a higher share in the high oil and gas resource case (38%) than in the reference case (34%) and all other cases.

A new approach to scheduling in manufacturing for power consumption and carbon footprint reduction[edit | edit source]

Description: Manufacturing scheduling strategies have historically emphasized cycle time; in almost all cases, energy and environmental factors have not been considered in scheduling. This paper presents a new mathematical programming model of the flow shop scheduling problem that considers peak power load, energy consumption, and associated carbon footprint in addition to cycle time. The new model is demonstrated using a simple case study: a flow shop where two machines are employed to produce a variety of parts. In addition to the processing order of the jobs, the proposed scheduling problem considers the operation speed as an independent variable, which can be changed to affect the peak load and energy consumption. Even with a single objective, finding an optimal schedule is notoriously difficult, so directly applying commercial software to this multi-objective scheduling problem requires significant computation time. This paper calls for the development of more specialized algorithms for this new scheduling problem and examines computationally tractable approaches for finding near-optimal schedules.

Future Global Energy Prosperity: The Terawatt Challenge[edit | edit source]

Description: Innovations in nanotechnology and other advances in materials science would make it possible to transform our vision of plentiful, low-cost energy into a reality. By developing new technologies, marshaling the excellent resources of organizations like the Materials Research Society, and developing the talents of a new generation of scientists and engineers, I believe that we can solve even our most critical energy problems.

Rooftop solar power: The solar energy potential of commercial building rooftops in the USA[edit | edit source]

Description: United States commercial building rooftops may be the most wasted real estate in North America. Combined, these predominantly flat rooftops represent an area of more than 1,000 square miles that, outside of their sheltering function, do nothing more than soak up the sun, literally. More than half of this space has the potential to produce energy using simple photovoltaic, or solar electric, generating stations. Bill Jeppesen, for RWE SCHOTT Solar, Inc., USA reports.

Discussion of strategies for mounting photovoltaic arrays on rooftops^[15][edit | edit source]

Abstract: The mechanical attachment of photovoltaic (PV) arrays to rooftops presents a number of unique and challenging issues for system designers and installers. With a resurgence of roof-mounted PV installations due to increasing duel costs and decreasing PV system prices, the Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) has accelerated its investigations of array mounting strategies, with the objectives of identifying key performance and cost parameters from a systems engineering perspective. Two principal classifications can be defined for rooftop PV array mounting systems: building-integrated (BIPV) and building-attached (BAPV) or standoff designs. The various attachment methods within these categories each have pros and cons that affect the labor and cost associated with the install and the system performance. An overview and assessment of some existing rooftop PV array attachment methods or mounting approaches, and their advantages and disadvantages with respect to key design criteria are presented to assist designers and installers in the selection of the appropriate method for a given project.

• Rooftop PV mounting review & recommendations re: design
• Considerations: Thermal & e performance, install & maint, circuitry & connectivity, orientation etc.
• BIPV & BAPV (standoff) -for design factors see Barkazi, 1998 -11 design factors provided to det. appropriate attch method
• sm mods/sys = greater # of connections & hardware
• 5% decrease / 10degC increase temp coeff
• design & air flow
• BIPV temp coeff 50degC/kWm^2 vs standoff @ 15-30 (King, 1997)
• heat transfer (Barkaszl, 1998) -6" to 3" standoff height
• loading on rooftop: dead loads (5-10psf, 110-120mph winds)
• mount to truss, rafter purlin, join vs. deck
• penetrations and sealing -UV res butyl rubber, caulk, vs. flash/boot (Dunlop et al, 1999)
• FG shingles <20 years vs. PV>20 (=re-roof)
• material -corssion (humidity, coastal salty air, diff metal & concrete contact)
• ss 316, 403, al 6061, 6063
• lacking citations

For completion[edit | edit source]

Wood example: https://spectrumz.com/low-cost-adjustable-solar-panel-rack/

Steel, Aluminum, Wood, Plastic -Gobal Pricing (Table)[edit | edit source]

PV Mounting Companies and Popular Racking Systems (Table)[edit | edit source]

• Unirac
• 30% share of NoAm racking mkt
• Iron Ridge
• IR XR100: (according to WS) ez install, code compl, state stamped engr (wind / snow load requirements specific to state), proprietary adapter connects flashing to rails, elevation adjust for uneven roof, Companies & Off mkt options: DynoRaxx, General Specialties, IronRidge, MT Solar, PWRstation, Quick Mount, S-5, SnapNRack, Solarland, SunModo

Metal Channels & Rails (Informative List)[edit | edit source]

• C & box, square, rectangular, open seem
• Type of metal, finish, manufacturing

Mounting Hardware[edit | edit source]

• Brackets, clips, clamps, Lfoot, tilt bar...

References[edit | edit source]