Reducing water consumption

One can use water more sustainably through a series of simple, everyday measures. These measures involve considering indoor home appliance efficiency, outdoor water use, and daily water use awareness.

Here are some techniques that require little or no setting up and cause little or no inconvenience, but they will generally save you money, and reduce your water, carbon and air pollution impact:^[1]

• Towel cooking - it's extremely easy. Wrapping a pot in a towel while it's hot is enough; putting in inside a cardboard box is better. An insulated box is better again (but needs a little bit of work to set up). Benefits: Save energy (electricity, gas or wood, depending on cooking method); reduce sticking and burning in the pots; reduce your need to watch the stove.
• "Air wash" your clothes - hang them up in an airy place when you take them off, and give them plenty of time to lose any odor. A drying rack on the balcony is ideal. A hook on the back of the door works, but not as well (unless there's a breeze hitting it). You could extend the time between washes by 2 or more times. See Clothing. Benefits: Save water and detergent; save effort.
• Rinse clothes: If you've "air washed" as described and worn a couple of times already, put the clothing in water and soak overnight or all day. Wring out and hang to dry. (Fast drying, using breeze and/or sun, gives a more fresh smell to the clothes. Drying in humid weather without sun or breeze can lead to a less-than-fresh smell.) Benefits: Save detergent, probably save some water as well; save effort.
• Hibernate or suspend your computer when you're not using it, if you don't want to turn it off. Most modern operating systems allow you to suspend or hibernate and wake up again very quickly - everything is the same as it was, as if you'd never turned it off. Benefits: Save electricity.

If you want minimal effort, but don't mind paying a little bit to be responsible:

• Call up your electricity provider and switch to 100% green power.

Housing and commercial buildings^W account for 12 percent of America's freshwater withdrawals.^[2]A typical American single family home uses about 70 gallons per person per day indoors.^[2]This usage can be reduced by simple alterations in behavior and upgrades to appliance^W quality.

Flush toilets account for almost 30% of residential indoor water use in the United States.^[3] Some tweaks can be applied to still reduce water consumption greatly with flush toilets. Another option is to install a type of toilet that doesn't use water at all. For example, composting toilets treat human waste through composting and dehydration^W, producing a valuable soil additive.^[4] These toilets feature a two-compartment bowl to separate urine from feces. The urine can be collected or sold as fertilizer. The feces can be dried and bagged or composted. These toilets cost scarcely more than regularly installed toilets and do not require a sewer hookup. In addition to providing valuable fertilizer, these toilets are highly sustainable because they save sewage collection and treatment, as well as lessen agricultural costs and improve topsoil^W.

On average, showers are 18% of indoor water use, at 6-8 gallons per minute traditionally in America.^[3]A simple method to reduce this usage is to switch to low-flow, high-performance showerheads. These showerheads use only 1.0-1.5 gpm or less. An alternative to replacing the showerhead is to install a converter. This device arrests a running shower upon reaching the desired temperature. Solar water heaters can be used to obtain optimal water temperature, and are more sustainable because they reduce dependence on fossil fuels. To lessen excess water usage, water pipes can be insulated with pre-slit foam pipe insulation. This insulation decreases hot water generation time. A simple, straightforward method to conserve water when showering is to take shorter showers. One method to accomplish this is to turn off the water when it is not necessary (such as while lathering) and resuming the shower when water is necessary.

On average, sinks are 15% of indoor water use.^[3]There are, however, easy methods to rectify excessive water loss. Available for purchase is a screw-on aerator. This device works by combining water with air thus generating a frothy substance that has more moisture and reduces water usage by half. Additionally, there is a flip-valve available that allows flow to be turned off and back on at the previously reached temperature. Finally, a laminar flow device creates a 1.5-2.4 gpm stream of water that reduces water usage by half, but can be turned to normal water level when optimal.

In addition to buying the above devices, one can live more sustainably by checking sinks for leaks, and fixing these links if they exist. According to the EPA, "A small drip from a worn faucet washer can waste 20 gallons of water per day, while larger leaks can waste hundreds of gallons":^[3]When using a sink, being more aware of water usage is a very simple way to use water more sustainably. For instance, when washing dishes by hand, it is not necessary to leave the water running for rinsing. It is more sustainable to rinse dishes simultaneously.

On average, dishwashing consumes 1% of indoor water use.^[3]When using a dishwasher^W, water can be conserved by only running the machine when it is completely full. Additionally, it can be set to Lowflow setting, in order to use less water per wash cycle. The enzymatic detergents^W available clean dishes more efficiently and more successfully with a smaller amount of water at a lower temperature.

On average, 23% of indoor water use is due to clothes washing.^[3]In contrast to other machines, American washing machines^W have changed little to become more sustainable. A typical washing machine has a vertical-axis design, in which clothes are agitated in a tubful of water. Horizontal-axis machines, in contrast, put less water into the bottom of the rub and rotate clothes through it. These machines are more efficient in terms of soap usage and clothing stability.

Most of the energy used up by the washing machine goes to warming the water according to Energy Star. Therefore, you must skip the heating setting of the machine and just use it on the cold water setting. This will not only restrict the emission of CO2 but will also maintain your clothes in good condition for long periods. Hot water is responsible for deteriorating the fabric and as a result, the colors of your clothing will appear less vibrant. There is no point in using hot water settings of your washing machines unless you are facing stubborn stains such as oil stains. If you feel that the cold water settings are not getting the job done you can turn back to the warm water settings.^[5]

There are a number of ways one can incorporate a personal yard^W, roof^W, and garden in more sustainable living. While conserving water is a major element of sustainability, so is sequestering water.

Most of us, if not all, are guilty of overwatering our front and backyards during the scorching summer months. The reality is lawns need a lot of water, but simple tricks can help conserve precious H20.

Program your sprinkler system to power on at night. Why? During the nighttime, the air is cooler and less capable of absorbing moisture. During the daytime, much of the water evaporates even before it hits the ground.

To ensure that water reaches the roots, leave the sprinkler on for about ten minutes. This step ensures that the soil is wet enough to avoid watering every day. Employing these additional tactics could also come in handy in preserving this precious resource.

A. Collect rainwater

B. Install a drip irrigation system

C. Check your sprinkler regularly (to ensure water is directed on your landscape and not on the sidewalks)^[6]

In planning a yard and garden space, it is most sustainable to consider the plants, soil, and available water. Drought resistant shrubs, plants, and grasses require a smaller amount of water in comparison to more traditional species. Additionally, native plants (as opposed to herbaceous perennials) will use a smaller supply of water and have a heightened resistance to plant diseases of the area. Xeriscape^W, a system that accounts for endemic features such as slope^W, soil type^W, and native plant^W range, can reduce landscape water use by 50 – 70%, while providing habitat^W space for wildlife. By planting slopes one can reduce runoff^W. Grouping plants by watering needs further reduces water waste.

After planting, placing a circumference of mulch surrounding plants functions to lessen evaporation^W. To do this, firmly press two to four inches of organic matter along the plant's dripline. This prevents water runoff^W. When watering, consider the range of sprinklers; watering paved areas is unnecessary. Additionally, to conserve the maximum amount of water, watering should be carried out during early mornings on non-windy days in order to reduce water loss to evaporation. Drip-irrigation systems and soaker hoses are a more sustainable alternative to the traditional sprinkler system. Drip-irrigation systems employ small gaps at standard distances in a hose, leading to the slow trickle of water droplets which percolate the soil over a protracted period. These systems use 30 – 50% less water than conventional methods.^[7] Soaker hoses help to reduce water use by up to 90%.^[8] They connect to a garden hose and lay along the row of plants under a layer of mulch. A layer of organic material^W added to the soil helps to increase its absorption and water retention; previously planted areas can be covered with compost.

In caring for a lawn, there are a number of measures that can increase the sustainability of lawn maintenance techniques. A primary aspect of lawn care is watering. In order to conserve water, it is important to only water when necessary, and to deep soak when watering. Additionally, a lawn may be left to go dormant, renewing after a dry spell to its original vitality.

Greywater systems function in sequestering used indoor water, such as laundry, bath and sink water, and filtering it for reuse. Greywater can be reused in irrigation and toilet flushing. There are two types of greywater systems: gravity fed manual systems and package systems.^[9] The manual systems do not require electricity but may require a larger yard space.^[9]The package systems require electricity but are self-contained and can be installed indoors.^[9]

A common method of water sequestrations is rainwater harvesting, which incorporates the collection and storage of rain. Primarily, the rain is obtained from a roof, and stored on the ground in catchment tanks. Water sequestration varies based on extent, cost, and complexity. A simple method involves a single barrel at the bottom of a downspout, while a more complex method involves multiple tanks. It is highly sustainable to use stored water in place of purified water for activities such as irrigation and flushing toilets. Additionally, using stored rainwater reduces the amount of runoff pollution, picked up from roofs and pavements that would normally enter streams through storm drains. The following equation can be used to estimate annual water supply:

Collection area (square feet) x Rainfall (inch/year) / 12 (inch/foot) = Cubic Feet of Water/Year

Cubic Feet/Year x 7.43 (Gallons/Cubic Foot) = Gallons/year

Note, however, this calculation does not account for losses such as evaporation or leakage.^[10]

Conservation pricing is a method used to encourage consumers to reduce water consumption and thus reduce or eliminate the need for new or existing dams. It involves creating financial incentives for consumers to use less water, while at the same time not making water supply cost prohibitive for any particular user. The purpose is to expose consumers to the "full costs" of water and discourage waste by targeting their most precious resource: the pocketbook.^[11] Municipalities in arid regions have been known to implement conservation pricing in the form of increasing block rates. Block rates are typically tiered for different usage levels so that users pay higher rates as they consume increasing amounts of water. Rates for customers who fall in the upper block can be three times the rates of users in the lower block.^[12] Cities like Tucson, Arizona and Edmonton, Canada are creating rate structures that have resulted in the cutting of household water use by 10 to 15 percent.^[13] While conservation pricing can be used to reduce residential water consumption, the impacts are more noticeable in the industrial arena because industry uses more water and is normally more likely to obtain volume discounts. A study by Janice Beecher in 1994 found that a ten percent increase in price decreased residential demand by up to four percent and industrial demand by up to eight percent.^[11]Experts suggest that rate plans be designed to consider the local population's ability to pay higher prices. While this may involve offering discounts or assistance to low-income families, it could allow for the targeting of highly wasteful industries. Eliminating volume discounts and using increased rates are methods of encouraging industry to implement some of the other conservation techniques discussed in this report.^[11]

Conservation pricing can reduce consumption without the capital expenditures associated with other water supply strategies. While conservation pricing may not result in the removal of a water supply dam, it is a tool that decisionmakers could adopt to stretch existing supplies and delay or eliminate the need to construct new dams.

While conservation pricing could preserve water resources, there are several institutional and public barriers to implementation. Many water systems are publicly owned and overseen by elected officials subject to the whims of politics. These officials might resist implementing higher prices for fear of retaliation at the voting booth. Setting higher rates could also be constrained by regulatory codes that vary across state and local jurisdictions. For example, at the federal level, the Clean Water Act determines how prices are set for wastewater treatment plants funded under the program.^[11]

Capital costs are virtually nonexistent for municipalities looking to implement conservation pricing. Consumers, however, could see their water rates increase as the amount of water they consume increases. See the chart on the preceding page for an example on how these rate structures would work.^[14]

From 1986 to 1992, the city of Santa Barbara, California experienced one of the most severe droughts in its history. This coastal community, which derives its water supply from a local aquifer and the Santa Ynez River, was forced to become more resourceful in meeting basic water needs. As part of a comprehensive water supply plan, they developed a desalination plant (discussed later), and increased the water rates three-fold through the course of the drought, switching to an increasing block rate structure in 1989. While it is difficult to separate the impact of conservation pricing from the education campaign and other conservation measures undertaken, water use dropped to 46 percent of pre-drought levels at the height of the drought. Five years after the drought ended, water use still held at 61 percent of pre-drought levels.^[15] If water savings such as this could be achieved in other watersheds, smaller, non-essential dams could be removed and the need for new dams diminished.

For more information, contact Stephen Renehan at the University of California, Santa Barbara School of Geography or download the full case study online at http://web.archive.org/web/20050228140633/http://www.geog.ucsb.edu:80/~renehan/awra_article/article.html.

• For more information, contact your state natural resources agency, such as Department of Natural Resources or Department of Environmental Protection.
• Chestnutt, Thomas. Designing, Evaluating, and Implementing Conservation Rate Structures, 1996. California Urban Water Conservation Council: http://web.archive.org/web/20081121004953/http://www.cuwcc.com/publications/.
• Gerston, Jan. Conservation Rates Affect Demand Management. Texas Water Resources Institute: http://twri.tamu.edu/twripubs/WtrSavrs/v3n4/article2.html. Fall 1997.
• Stallworth, Holly. Conservation Pricing of Water and Wastewater, April 2000 EPA: http://web.archive.org/web/20040203204449/http://www.epa.gov:80/owm/water-efficiency/water7.pdf.

Key points: Retrofitting is expensive; the most appealing options for environmentalists (e.g. rainwater tanks) are not necessarily the most cost-effective ways of conserving water.

The Marsden Jacob report on water supply options for Australian cities states:

Large-scale water conservation measures, such as retrofitting of water saving appliances, does come at a cost. This cost must be weighed against the benefits of the measure. For example, the review of Sydney Metropolitan Water Plan suggests some water conservation measures, such as appliance standards and labelling, may cost very little, while other measures, such as the installation of rainwater tanks may cost as much as $3 per kilolitre – well above the cost of other measures such as recycling.^[16]

and:

Structural alternatives to potable water supplies, including stormwater recycling and water sensitive urban design, are typically only cost effective in greenfield situations, where new developments can be designed with water conservation in mind. While greenfield sites represent only a small proportion of the city in any particular year, the growing population will mean that structural changes introduced on a small scale now will dominate the cityscape of the future.^[17]

Rainwater tanks: One writer summed up the report's view on rainwater tanks as follows: (Particularly in a drought), "rainwater tanks are pretty useless as well (as dams). Installing enough tanks to make any difference would be far more expensive than building a desalination plant, and next to useless in a continuing drought."[1]

The Marsden Jacob report states:

Rainwater tanks deliver the highest benefit compared with cost in areas that receive consistent rainfall during the year. In areas that receive little rainfall during summer months, such as Perth, rainwater tanks supply relatively little water and at high unit cost with the result that other water sources are typically required to make up the shortfall during the heaviest periods of water use;^[18]

Stormwater, according to the report, would be a significantly cheaper source than rainwater tanks, in Australian cities. A third world equivalent might be a simple form of groundwater recharge to capture water runoff from the earth and to recharge the water table, which is then accessible as groundwater.

Greywater systems always have input due to primary uses (e.g. bathing, washing clothes and dishes, and cooking), unlike rainwater systems. In that sense they are ideal for ensuring water supply for secondary uses, such as a garden, during a drought.

• Equal and proportionate distribution of water in irrigation systems
• Beyond Dams/Sustainable Water Management Alternatives
• Earthship#Water
• International Rivers Network
• American Rivers

• Wikipedia:Water conservation
• Rainwater Harvesting Systems in the UK