Literature Review: Solar Photovoltaics Recycling

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Country-wise Solar PV Waste Production[edit | edit source]

Interactive map to check out which countries produce the most solar panel waste

Amount of solar panel waste (in tons)
Country	2016	2020	2030	2040	2050
Japan	7,000 t	15,000 t	200,000 t	1,800,000 t	6,500,000 t
China	5,000 t	8,000 t	200,000 t	2,800,000 t	13,500,000 t
India	1,000 t	2,000 t	50,000 t	620,000 t	4,400,000 t
Germany	3,500 t	20,000 t	400,000 t	2,2000,000 t	4,300,000 t
Italy	850 t	5,000 t	140,000 t	1,000,000 t	2,100,000 t
France	650 t	1,500 t	45,000 t	400,000 t	1,500,000 t
United Kingdom	250 t	650 t	30,000 t	350,000 t	1,000,000 t
United States	6,500 t	13,000 t	170,000 t	1,700,000 t	7,500,000 t
Canada	350 t	700 t	13,000 t	150,000 t	650,000 t
Australia	900 t	2,000 t	30,000 t	300,000 t	900,000 t
South Africa	350 t	450 t	8,500 t	150,000 t	750,000 t

Search Terms & Keywords[edit | edit source]

solar pv recycling processes	"physical operations" recycling of photovoltaic panels	"material recycling" solar photovoltaic panels	"remanufacturing" "photovoltaics"
recycled silicon wafers "solar panels"	eco-friendly method silicon wafers	eco-friendly method cell fabrication	solar PV module repair, reuse and recycling
"recycling process" crystalline silicon photovoltaic panels	hybrid perovskite solar cells	"recyclable" "solar cells"	end-of-life (EoL) management of solar panel
efficient and "cost-effective materials" to "manufacture" "solar PV" modules	photovoltaic module recycling chemical recovery process	waste photovoltaic modules "recycling of silicon"	Life cycle assessment of solar PV

Literature[edit | edit source]

A Review of Recycling Processes for Photovoltaic Modules[edit | edit source]

Lunardi, Marina Monteiro, Juan Pablo Alvarez-Gaitan, and José I. Bilbao and Richard Corkish. A Review of Recycling Processes for Photovoltaic Modules. Solar Panels and Photovoltaic Materials. IntechOpen, 2018. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.74390.

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The installations of photovoltaic (PV) solar modules are growing extremely fast. As a result of the increase, the volume of modules that reach the end of their life will grow at the same rate in the near future. It is expected that by 2050 that figure will increase to 5.5–6 million tons. Consequently, methods for recycling solar modules are being developed worldwide to reduce the environmental impact of PV waste and to recover some of the value from old modules. Current recycling methods can recover just a portion of the materials, so there is plenty of room for progress in this area. Currently, Europe is the only jurisdiction that has a strong and clear regulatory framework to support the PV recycling process. This review presents a summary of possible PV recycling processes for solar modules, including c-Si and thin-film technologies as well as an overview of the global legislation. So far, recycling processes of c-Si modules are unprofitable but are likely to be mandated in more jurisdictions. There is potential to develop new pathways for PV waste management industry development and offer employment and prospects for both public and private sector investors.

Highlights[edit | edit source]

• The predominant solar technology (approx 90% of the market) is Crystalline Silicon (c-Si)
• The estimated installed capacity in 2050 is 4500 GW according to the International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaics (ITRPV)
• PV waste currently ends up in costly landfill
• Lead and Tin present in PV can result in environmental damage
• Valuable metals like silver, copper, gallium, cadmium, aluminium and silicon should be recovered
• Current recycling methods are mostly based on downcycling processes
• Mono or multicrystalline silicon recycling process is well developed than other PV technologies
• Only 10% of PV modules are recycled globally due to lack of regulations
• Except European Union, none has a strong regulatory framework
• Many countries still consider the PV wastes insignificant compared to other WEEE and the recycling processes uneconomical
• Recycling can ensure sustainability of the long-term supply chain
• Upto 90% recovery of materials is not sufficient compared to the production cost of thin film solar modules
• FirstSolar, Pilkington, Sharp Solar and Siemens Solar are investing in the research on solar module at EoL

Main Focuses of Solar Recycling Process[edit | edit source]

1. Avoidance of damage to the PV cells and materials
2. Economic feasibility
3. High recovery rate of materials that have
   • high monetary value
   • are scare or hazardous
   • can be reused in the supply chain
4. To create "recycling-friendly" module design

Legislative Framework by Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive 2012/19/EU[edit | edit source]

• Objectives and Goals
  • to preserve, protect and improve the quality of the environment
  • to protect human health and
  • to utilize natural resources prudently and rationally
• Every EU member state has regulations governing the collecting, transport, and recycling of PV modules that have reached their End of Life as of February 2014.

Recent Development of Framework in Other Countries[edit | edit source]

Japan[edit | edit source]

• The primary cause of Japan's rapidly expanding solar module installation, which has the potential to lead to a serious waste problem, is the "feed-in-tariff," which was implemented by the Japanese government in 2012.
• To properly dispose of EoL PV modules, the Japan Photovoltaic Energy Association (JPEA) developed voluntary guidelines in 2017.

USA[edit | edit source]

• Some states go beyond the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, which regulates waste management.
• According to Senate Bill 489, which classifies EoL PV modules as Universal Waste, California has the additional threshold for hazardous materials categorization (facilitating easy transport).

Australia[edit | edit source]

• Australia's government recognizes the importance of regulating PV waste.
• State of Victoria will lead creative measures to minimize solar systems' environmental consequences. These efforts are part of an industry-led voluntary product management framework to address PV system and waste hazards.
• PV modules are listed under the National Product Administration Act to signify a plan to deal with waste.

Solar PV Technologies[edit | edit source]

Photovoltaic Recycling Technologies[edit | edit source]

• The most common methods for recycling c-Si PV
  1. Mechanical process
  2. Thermal Process
  3. Chemical Process

PV Cycle[edit | edit source]

• first to establish comercial c-Si Pv recycling process and Pv waste logistics throughout EU
• achieved a record recycling rate of 98%

FirstSolar[edit | edit source]

• Developed a recycling process for CdTe modules
• Recovers 90% glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials.

ANTEC Solar GmbH[edit | edit source]

• A pilot project has been designed for CdTe module recycling

SolarWorld[edit | edit source]

• this company has well established c-Si recycling process
• started recycling in 2003 with a pilot project using a thermal process
• process starts with pyrolysing the module
• 84% of the module weight can be recoverd
• can recover upto 98% of unbroken cells

New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO)[edit | edit source]

• pilot project was funded by Japanese Government
• the process for Si or CIS is based on pyrolysis of the polymers in a furnace

NPC Incorporated[edit | edit source]

• makes solar recycling equipments
• the process called the "hot Knife method"
• can separate the cell from the glass in just 40 second

File:Summary of "hot knife" recycling process for PV modules.png

Loser Chemie[edit | edit source]

• this company has a developed and patented original processes
• mechanical and chemical treatment are used to recycle solar cell

Reclaim PV[edit | edit source]

• teamed up with major solar module manufacturers in Australia
• developed a process of reclaiming efficient solar cells from damaged modules

Photovoltaic Recycling Technologies Studied Worldwide[edit | edit source]

Silicon Solar Modules Recycling Processes[1]
Process	Advantages	Disadvantages	Status
Organic solvent dissolution	Easy access to the EVA Less cell damage Recovery of glass	Delamination time depends on area Harmful emissions and wastes	Research
Organic solvent and ultrasonic irradiation	More efficient than solvent dissolution process Easy access to the EVA	Expensive equipment Harmful emissions and wastes	Research
Electro-thermal heating	Easy removal of glass	Slow process	Research
Mechanical separation by hotwire cutting	Low cell damage Recovery of glass	Other separation processes required for full removal of EVA	Research
Pyrolysis (conveyer belt furnace and fluidised bed reactor)	Separate 80% of wafers and almost 100% of the glass sheets Cost-effective industrial recycling process	Slightly worse texturisation (damage to cell surface)	Research (pilot)
Solvent (Nitric acid) dissolution	Complete removal of EVA and metal coating on the wafer It is possible to recover intact cells	It can cause cell defects due to inorganic acid Generates harmful emissions and wastes	Research (pilot)
Physical disintegration	Capable of treating waste	Other separation processes required for full EVA removal Dusts containing heavy metals Breakage of solar cells Equipment corrosion	Commercial
Dry and wet mechanical process	No process chemicals Equipment widely available Low energy requirements	No removal of dissolved solids	Commercial
Thermal treatment (Two steps heating)	Full removal of EVA Possible recovery of intact cell Economically feasible process	Harmful emissions High energy requirements Cell defects and degradation due to high temperature	Commercial
Chemical etching	Recover high purity materials Simple and efficient process	Use of chemicals	Commercial

Thin-film Solar Modules Recycling Processes[1]	Process	Advantages	Disadvantages	Status
Organic solvent dissolution	Easy access to the encapsulant Less cell damage Recovery of glass	Time for delamination depends on area Harmful emissions and wastes	Research
Irradiation by laser	Easy access to the encapsulant	Slow process Very expensive equipment	Research
Mechanical separation by hotwire cutting	Low cell damage Recovery of glass	Other separation processes required for encapsulant	Research
Vacuum blasting	Removal of semiconductor layers without chemicals Recovery of clean glass	Relatively slow process Emission of metals Further chemical/mechanical treatments	Research (pilot)
Attrition	No usage of chemicals Recovery of clean glass	Further chemical or mechanical treatments needed	Research (pilot)
Flotation	Relatively simple process Low use of chemicals	High losses of valuables during rinsing and sieving process Flotation process required	Research (pilot)
Dry etching	Simple process	High energy demand High effort for purification	Commercial
Physical disintegration	Capable of treating waste	Other separation processes required for encapsulant Dusts containing heavy metals Breakage of solar cells Equipment corrosion	Commercial
Dry and wet mechanical process	No process chemicals Equipment widely available Low energy requirements	No removal of dissolved solids	Commercial
Chemical etching	High purity materials Simple and efficient process	Use of chemicals	Commercial
Thermal treatment	Full removal of encapsulant Recovery of intact cell Simple and economical	Harmful emissions High energy requirements Cell defects and degradation	Commercial
Leaching	Complete removal of metals	High use of chemicals Generation of acidic fumes Complex control of chemicals	Commercial

Review on Feasible Recycling Pathways and Technologies of Solar Photovoltaic Modules[edit | edit source]

Tao, Jing, and Suiran Yu. "Review on Feasible Recycling Pathways and Technologies of Solar Photovoltaic Modules." Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 141 (October 31, 2015).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2015.05.005.

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Given the rapid increase in production and installation of PV systems, recycling of PV modules is becoming more and more important. In this paper, three types of recycling pathways from perspectives of close-loop life cycle, which are manufacturing waste recycling, disposed module remanufacturing and recycling, are investigated. For each pathway, proven technologies are presented and their advantages and drawbacks are described. The results show that recycling technologies for PV manufacturing wastes and end-of-life modules are wildly explored and some are commercially available, although the challenges still remain in process efficiency, reduction in process complexity, energy requirements, and use of chemicals. Some research has been conducted on remanufacturing and reuse of PV modules. The ease-to-disassembly design may improve the reusability of valuable components. It is also found that though studies showed that PV module manufacturing waste recycling and end-of-life module recycling have significant positive impacts on the reducing environment loads, economic viability of PV module recycling is still unfavorable and policies are needed to encourage producer responsibility not only in the PV manufacturing sector but also in the entire energy industry, and an efficient collection network should be important to the economic viability of PV module recycling business.

Highlights[edit | edit source]

• Advantages and drawbacks of Solar PV Recycling
• Unfavorable economic motivation
• Three types of recycling pathways
  • manufacturing waste recycling
  • disposed module remanufacturing
  • disposed module recycling
• Need of policy to establish efficient collection network

An overview of solar photovoltaic panels' end-of-life material recycling[edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

End-of-life (EOL) solar panels may become a source of hazardous waste although there are enormous benefits globally from the growth in solar power generation. Global installed PV capacity reached around 400 GW at the end of 2017 and is expected to rise further to 4500 GW by 2050. Considering an average panel lifetime of 25 years, the worldwide solar PV waste is anticipated to reach between 4%-14% of total generation capacity by 2030 and rise to over 80% (around 78 million tonnes) by 2050. Therefore, the disposal of PV panels will become a pertinent environmental issue in the next decades. Eventually, there will be great scopes to carefully investigate on the disposal and recycling of PV panels EOL. The EU has pioneered PV electronic waste regulations including PV-specific collection, recovery and recycling targets. The EU Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive entails all producers supplying PV panels to the EU market to finance the costs of collecting and recycling EOL PV panels in Europe. Lessons can be learned from the involvement of the EU in forming its regulatory framework to assist other countries develop locally apposite approaches. This review focused on the current status of solar panel waste recycling, recycling technology, environmental protection, waste management, recycling policies and the economic aspects of recycling. It also provided recommendations for future improvements in technology and policy making. At present, PV recycling management in many countries envisages to extend the duties of the manufacturers of PV materials to encompass their eventual disposal or reuse. However, further improvements in the economic viability, practicality, high recovery rate and environmental performance of the PV industry with respect to recycling its products are indispensable.

Global status of recycling waste solar panels: A review[edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

With the enormous growth in the development and utilization of solar-energy resources, the proliferation of waste solar panels has become problematic. While current research into solar panels has focused on how to improve the efficiency of the production capacity, the dismantling and recycling of end-of-life (EOL) panels are seldom considered, as can be seen, for instance, in the lack of dedicated solar-panel recycling plants. EOL solar-panel recycling can effectively save natural resources and reduce the cost of production. To address the environmental conservation and resource recycling issues posed by the huge amount of waste solar panels regarding environmental conservation and resource recycling, the status of the management and recycling technologies for waste solar panels are systemically reviewed and discussed in this article. This review can provide a quantitative basis to support the recycling of PV panels, and suggests future directions for public policy makers. At present, from the technical aspect, the research on solar panel recovery is facing many problems, and we need to further develop an economically feasible and non-toxic technology. The research on solar photovoltaic panels' management at the end of life is just beginning in many countries, and there is a need for further improvement and expansion of producer responsibility.

High-yield recycling and recovery of copper, indium, and gallium from waste copper indium gallium selenide thin-film solar panels[edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

A separation process for Cu, In, Ga, and Se (CIGS)-based thin-film solar panels is proposed in this study. Initially, the separation process, by peeling off the panels in a layer-by-layer manner, was achieved by utilizing the different thermal strains of materials inside the CIGS solar panels. Subsequently, the recovery process was performed by annealing the CIGS layers for the removal of Se, and then leaching was performed with nitric acid, followed by the individual extraction of valuable metals. The pH values, concentrations of extractant, stripping agents, organic-aqueous ratios, and reaction time were investigated in detail to optimize the separation conditions for Cu, In, and Ga. First, In was extracted using di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid into the organic phase, while Cu and Ga remained in the aqueous phase, by controlling the extraction conditions. After the extraction of In, Ga was extracted using the same extraction agent under different conditions, and nearly pure Cu remained in the residual aqueous solution. Ammonium hydroxide was added to three solutions to form metal hydroxide precipitates. Under the optimal conditions, a recovery rate of >90% could be achieved for In, Ga, and Cu. Furthermore, all as-formed hydroxides were recycled and converted into metal oxides with a purity of >99% by calcination. These findings can provide a pathway for the effective recycling and recovery of Cu, In, and Ga from waste CIGS thin-film solar panels.

Highlights[edit | edit source]

i. A facile and practical method to separate and recover valuable metals respectively from the real commercial thin-film solar panel was demonstrated

ii. A novel and low-cost physical separation process was induced to peer off the solar panel layer by layer via the extremely low-temperature liquid nitrogen treatment.

iii. An extraction and stripping process was designed to separate Cu, In, and Ga from a complicated multi-element system individually.

iv. Highly pure valuable metal oxides were recovered as the final products, establishing a possible circular economy model for waste solar panel recycling and recovery.

Energy decarbonisation in the European Union: Assessment of photovoltaic waste recycling potential[edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The Renewable Energy Directive delineates policies for energy production from renewable sources by at least 32% in European Union (EU) by 2030. All member states have established National Energy and Climate Plans (NECPs) for 2021–2030 to decipher how they will cover their energy needs from renewable sources. This work considers the targets set by each of the EU-27 countries to implement, in particular, solar photovoltaic (PV) modules to cover their energy needs. Then, the future PV waste amounts are assessed considering the widely used Early Loss and Regular Loss scenarios, as well as the noteworthy scenario proposed by the EU WEEE Directive. The study addresses the questions "when will large amounts of panel waste be generated in the EU countries and what will their composition be?" Also, a timescale for starting an economically viable recycling industry for PV panel waste in the EU is estimated based on the annual PV waste generated in each country. By 2050, 14.3–18.5 Mt PV waste will be generated in EU-27 while the profit of PV recovered materials will be 21.98–27.36 billion USD. The findings contribute to the efficient management of the forthcoming e-waste category, according to circular economy principles, ensuring the pathway to sustainability.

Highlights[edit | edit source]

i. "when will large amounts of panel waste be generated in the EU countries and what will their composition be?" by EU WEEE

ii. a timescale for starting an economically viable recycling industry for PV panel waste

End of Life Management: Solar Photovoltaic Panels[edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Technical potential of materials recovered from end-of-life solar PV panels could exceed $15 billion by 2050. The global solar photovoltaic (PV) boom currently underway will represent a significant untapped business opportunity as decommissioned solar panels enter the waste stream in the years ahead, according to a report released today by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the International Energy Agency's Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (IEA-PVPS). The report, End-of-Life Management: Solar Photovoltaic Panels, is the first-ever projection of PV panel waste volumes to 2050 and highlights that recycling or repurposing solar PV panels at the end of their roughly 30-year lifetime can unlock a large stock of raw materials and other valuable components. It estimates that PV panel waste, comprised mostly of glass, could total 78 million tonnes globally by 2050. If fully injected back into the economy, the value of the recovered material could exceed USD 15 billion by 2050. This potential material influx could produce 2 billion new panels or be sold into global commodity markets, thus increasing the security of future PV supply or other raw material-dependent products. The report suggests that addressing growing solar PV waste, and spurring the establishment of an industry to handle it, would require: the adoption of effective, PV-specific waste regulation; the expansion of existing waste management infrastructure to include end-of-life treatment of PV panels, and; the promotion of ongoing innovation in panel waste management. In most countries, PV panels fall under the classification of 'general waste' but the European Union (EU) was the first to adopt PV-specific waste regulations, which include PV-specific collection, recovery, and recycling targets. EU's directive requires all panel producers that supply PV panels to the EU market (wherever they may be based) to finance the costs of collecting and recycling end-of-life PV panels put on the market in Europe. End-of-Life Management: Solar Photovoltaic Panels, is the second of several solar-focused publications IRENA is releasing this summer. Last week, IRENA released The Power to Change, which predicts average costs for electricity generated by solar and wind technologies could decrease by between 26 and 59 per cent by 2025. Later this week, IRENA will release Letting in the Light: How Solar Photovoltaics Will Revolutionize the Electricity System - which provides a comprehensive overview of solar PV across the globe and its prospects for the future.

Life Cycle Analysis of Solar Module Recycling Process[edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Since June 2003 Deutsche Solar AG is operating a recycling plant for modules with crystalline cells. The aim of the process is to recover the silicon wafers so that they can be reprocessed and integrated in modules again. The aims of the Life Cycle Analysis of the mentioned process are (i) the verification if the process is beneficial regarding environmental aspects, (ii) the comparison to other end-of-life scenarios, (iii) the ability to include the end-of-life phase of modules in future LCA of photovoltaic modules. The results show that the recycling process makes good ecological sense, because the environmental burden during the production phase of reusable components is higher than the burden due to the recycling process. Moreover the Energy Pay Back Time of modules with recycled cells was determined.

Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of End-of-Life Silicon Solar Photovoltaic Modules[edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The cumulative global photovoltaic (PV) waste reached 250,000 metric tonnes by the end of 2016 and is expected to increase considerably in the future. Hence, adequate end-of-life (EoL) management for PV modules must be developed. Today, most of the EoL modules go to landfill, mainly because recycling processes for PV modules are not yet economically feasible and regulation in most countries is not yet well established. Nevertheless, several methods for recycling PV modules are under development. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology that quantifies the environmental impacts of a process or a product. An attributional LCA was undertaken to compare landfill, incineration, reuse and recycling (mechanical, thermal and chemical routes) of EoL crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar modules, based on a combination of real process data and assumptions. The results show that recovery of materials from solar modules results in lower environmental impacts compared to other EoL scenarios, considering our assumptions. The impacts could be even lower with the adoption of more complex processes that can reclaim more materials. Although recycling processes can achieve good recycling rates and recover almost all materials from solar modules, attention must be paid to the use of toxic substances during the chemical routes of recycling and to the distance to recycling centres due to the impacts of transportation.

Recycling of solar photovoltaic panels: Techno-economic assessment in waste management perspective[edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

This work assessed the economic sustainability of photovoltaic panels (PV) recycling. The PV throughout and silver (Ag) concentration in PVs are the main factor affecting recycling. For high Ag concentrations (0.2%), the recycling is sustainable without PV recycling fee if the PV throughput is higher than 18,000 t/yr. Lower processing volumes enable sustainability only with recycling fees from 0% up to 46% of the total annualized costs in the throughput range 18,000–9000 t/yr. For low Ag concentrations (0.05%) recycling fees are instead always needed to achieve profitability, unless the throughput is higher than 43,000 t/yr. Given the high Ag revenues, efforts should be done towards its recovery. If however a mixed silver-silicon fraction was sold for more than 50–70% of its actual value depending on the Ag concentration, a simplified process without hydrometallurgical separation could generate higher profitability on the short and long term. Given the decreasing Ag content in PVs, the profitability in recycling also depends on when the investments are realized. In the medium Ag concentration scenario and for Ag prices of 600 $/kg, PV fees are always required for the net present value (NPV) to be higher than CAPEX. The later the investment, the higher the PV throughputs and PV fees required to generate the same NPV. Investing in 2025 under the hypothesis of a regular loss scenario and an Ag price of 750 $/kg is the only condition that produces NPVs higher than CAPEX without PV fees if the throughput is at least 30,000 t/yr.

Review of Solar Silicon Recycling[edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Photovoltaic (PV) modules are becoming an ever increasingly larger part of our energy portfolio. As more and more PV modules are installed and come online, management of end-of-life (EOL) modules becomes an important issue. Currently, management of overburdened EOL PV modules is not an issue but is anticipated to be by 2030. Recovery and recycling of valuable metals in PV modules presents several environmental and economical advantages. In this brief review, we will describe processes for refurbishing and recycling of PV silicon. These processes involve some combination of mechanical, thermal, and chemical processing, all of which have their own respective challenges. Also projections of PV module material streams are also highlighted.