This is in a series of literature reviews on InGaN solar cells, which supported the comprehensive review by D.V.P. McLaughlin & J.M. Pearce, "Progress in Indium Gallium Nitride Materials for Solar Photovoltaic Energy Conversion"Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 44(4) pp. 1947-1954 (2013). open access
Others: InGaN solar cells| InGaN PV| InGaN materials| InGan LEDs| Nanocolumns and nanowires| Optical modeling of thin film microstructure| Misc.


III–nitrides: Growth, characterization, and properties[edit | edit source]

Abstract: During the last few years the developments in the field of III–nitrides have been spectacular. High quality epitaxial layers can now be grown by MOVPE. Recently good quality epilayers have also been grown by MBE. Considerable work has been done on dislocations, strain, and critical thickness of GaN grown on different substrates. Splitting of valence band by crystal field and by spin-orbit interaction has been calculated and measured. The measured values agree with the calculated values. Effects of strain on the splitting of the valence band and on the optical properties have been studied in detail. Values of band offsets at the heterointerface between several pairs of different nitrides have been determined. Extensive work has been done on the optical and electrical properties. Near band-edge spectra have been measured over a wide range of temperatures. Free and bound exciton peaks have been resolved. Valence band structure has been determined using the PL spectra and compared with the theoretically calculated spectra. Strain and its effect on the optical properties of the III–nitride layers have been studied both theoretically and experimentally. Both n and p conductivity have been achieved. InGaN quantum wells with GaN and AlGaN barriers and cladding layers have been investigated. PL of the quantum wells is affected by confinement effects, band filling, quantum confined Stark effect, and strain. This work has led to the fabrication of advanced optoelectronic and electronic devices. The light-emitting decodes emitting in the blue and green regions of the spectrum have been commercialized. The work leading to these developments is reviewed in this article. The device processing methods and actual devices are not discussed.

Giant electric fields in unstrained GaN single quantum wells[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Author(s) demonstrate that, even in unstrained GaN quantum wells with AlGaN barriers, there exist giant electric fields as high as 1.5 MV/cm. These fields, resulting from the interplay of the piezoelectric and spontaneous polarizations in the well and barrier layers due to Fermi level alignment, induce large redshifts of the photoluminescence energy position and dramatically increase the carrier lifetime as the quantum well thickness increases.

Thermodynamic and kinetic processes involved in the growth of epitaxial GaN thin films[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Our experimental results using reactive magnetron sputtering, combined with earlier literature, are used to understand the thermodynamic and kinetic processes involved in GaN film growth and the limiting factors involved in the incorporation of nitrogen during the growth process. Author(s) show that GaN films fabricated with low pressure growth techniques (<0.1 Torr) such as sputtering and molecular beam epitaxy are formed under metastable conditions with a nonequilibrium kinetically limited reaction. For these methods, the growth process is controlled by a competition between the forward reaction, which depends on the arrival of activated nitrogen species at the growing surface, and the reverse reaction whose rate is limited by the unusually large kinetic barrier of decomposition of GaN. In practice, the thermally activated rate of decomposition sets an upper bound to the growth temperature.

Optical bandgap energy of wurtzite InN[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Wurtzite InN films were grown on a thick GaN layer by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy. Growth of a (0001)-oriented single crystalline layer was confirmed by Raman scattering, x-ray diffraction, and reflection high energy electron diffraction. Author(s) observed at room temperature strong photoluminescence (PL) at 0.76 eV as well as a clear absorption edge at 0.7–1.0 eV. In contrast, no PL was observed, even by high power excitation, at ∼1.9 eV, which had been reported as the band gap in absorption experiments on polycrystalline films. Careful inspection strongly suggests that a wurtzite InN single crystal has a true bandgap of 0.7–1.0 eV, and the discrepancy could be attributed to the difference in crystallinity.

Activation Energy for the Sublimation of Gallium Nitride[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Gallium nitride was found to sublime congruently from a torsion—effusion cell when the ratio of orifice area to sample area was about 1/30 and incongruently to yield nitrogen gas and liquid gallium when this ratio was about 1/100 or less. A mass‐spectrometer investigation revealed no measurable concentrations of gallium nitride vapor molecules. The heat of activation for the reaction 2GaN(s)=2Ga(1)+N2(g) was calculated to be 39 kcal at 1300°K from the temperature dependence of the effusion data. The rate of the reaction 2GaN(s)=2Ga(g)+N2(g) was measured by a torsion—Langmuir method. From the temperature dependence of sublimation the heat of activation for this reaction was calculated to be ΔH1300‡=218.6 kcal compared to 173 kcal for the equilibrium reaction, and the entropy of activation was calculated to be 74.3 cal/deg.

Unusual properties of the fundamental band gap of InN[edit | edit source]

Abstract: The optical properties of wurtzite-structured InN grown on sapphire substrates by molecular-beam epitaxy have been characterized by optical absorption, photoluminescence, and photomodulated reflectance techniques. These three characterization techniques show an energy gap for InN between 0.7 and 0.8 eV, much lower than the commonly accepted value of 1.9 eV. The photoluminescence peak energy is found to be sensitive to the free-electron concentration of the sample. The peak energy exhibits very weak hydrostatic pressure dependence, and a small, anomalous blueshift with increasing temperature.

Relaxation Process of the Thermal Strain in the GaN/α-Al2O3 Heterostructure and Determination of the Intrinsic Lattice Constants of GaN Free from the Strain[edit | edit source]

Abstract: The relaxation process of the thermal strain in a GaN film due to the thermal expansion coefficient difference in the GaN(0001)/α-Al2O3(0001) heterostructure is studied by varying the film thickness of GaN in a wide range from 1 to 1200 µm. The lattice constant c has a large value of 5.191 Å at a film thickness less than a few microns, while it decreases to about 150 µm, and becomes constant above 150 µm, indicating that the strain is almost completely relaxed. The intrinsic lattice constants of wurtzite GaN free from the strain, a0 and c0, are determined to be 3.1892±0.0009 and 5.1850±0.0005 Å, respectively.

Variation of band bending at the surface of Mg-doped InGaN: Evidence of p-type conductivity across the composition range[edit | edit source]

Abstract: The variation of band bending as a function of composition at oxidized (0001) surfaces of Mg-doped InxGa1−xN is investigated using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Distinctly different trends in barrier height are seen for the Mg-doped compared to undoped alloys, which is explained in terms of Fermi-level pinning at the surface and virtual gap states. Solutions of Poisson's equation within the modified Thomas-Fermi approximation are used to model the band bending and corresponding variation of carrier concentration with depth below the surface. A transition from a surface inversion layer for In-rich alloys to a surface hole depletion layer for Ga-rich alloys occurs at x≈0.49. The trend in barrier height, calculated space-charge profiles, and difference of barrier height for undoped and Mg-doped InN indicate that Mg doping induces bulk p-type conductivity across the entire composition range.

High internal electric field in a graded-width InGaN/GaN quantum well: Accurate determination by time-resolved photoluminescence spectroscopy[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Time-resolved photoluminescence (PL), at T = 8 K, is used to study a graded-width InGaN/GaN quantum well. Across the sample, the well width continuously varies from ∼5.5 to 2.0 nm corresponding to PL peak energies varying between 2.0 and 2.9 eV and to PL decay rates covering four orders of magnitude. The plot of decay times versus PL energies is very well fitted by a calculation of the electron–hole recombination probability versus well width. The only fitting parameter is the electric field in the well, which Author(s) find equal to 2.45±0.25 MV/cm, in excellent agreement with experimental Stokes shifts for this type of samples.

Discrimination of local radiative and nonradiative recombination processes in an InGaN/GaN single-quantum-well structure by a time-resolved multimode scanning near-field optical microscopy[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Precise identification of recombination dynamics based on local, radiative, and nonradiative recombination has been achieved at room temperature in a blue-light-emitting InxGa1−xN/GaN single-quantum-well structure by comparing the photoluminescence (PL) spectra taken by illumination-collection mode (I-C mode) and those by illumination mode (I-mode) in scanning near-field microscopy. The PL data mapped with PL lifetimes, as well as with PL spectra, revealed that the probed area could be classified into four different regions whose dominating processes are (1) radiative recombination within a probing aperture, (2) nonradiative recombination within an aperture, (3) diffusion of photogenerated excitons/carriers out of an aperture resulting in localized luminescence, and (4) the same diffusion process as (3), but resulting in nonradiative recombination.

Determination of the chemical composition of distorted InGaN/GaN heterostructures from x-ray diffraction data[edit | edit source]

Abstract: An evaluation algorithm for the determination of the chemical composition of strained hexagonal epitaxial films is presented. This algorithm is able to separate the influence of strain and composition on the lattice parameters measured by x-ray diffraction. The measurement of symmetric and asymmetric reflections delivers the strained lattice parameters a and c of hexagonal epitaxial films. These lattice parameters are used to calculate the relaxed lattice parameters employing the theory of elasticity. From the relaxed parameters, the chemical composition of the epitaxial film can be determined by Vegard's rule. The algorithm has been applied to InGaN/GaN/Al2O3(00.1) heterostructures.

Heteroepitaxial growth of In-face InN on GaN (0001) by plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy[edit | edit source]

Abstract: The thermodynamic aspects of indium-face InN growth by radio frequency plasma-assisted molecular-beam epitaxy (rf-MBE) and the nucleation of InN on gallium-face GaN (0001) surface were investigated. The rates of InN decomposition and indium desorption from the surface were measured in situ using reflected high-energy electron diffraction and the rf-MBE "growth window" of In-face InN (0001) was identified. It is shown that sustainable growth can be achieved only when the arrival rate of active nitrogen species on the surface is higher than the arrival rate of indium atoms. The maximum substrate temperature permitting InN growth as a function of the active nitrogen flux was determined. The growth mode of InN on Ga-face GaN (0001) surface was investigated by reflected high-energy electron diffraction and atomic force microscopy. It was found to be of the Volmer–Weber-type for substrate temperatures less than 350 °C and of the Stranski–Krastanov for substrate temperatures between 350 and 520 °C. The number of monolayers of initial two-dimensional growth, in the case of Stranski–Krastanov mode, varies monotonically with substrate temperature, from 2 ML at 400 °C to about 12 ML at 500 °C. The evolution and coalescence of nucleated islands were also investigated as a function of substrate temperature. It was found that at higher temperature their coalescence is inhibited leading to porous-columnar InN thin films, which exhibit growth rates higher than the nominal value. Therefore, in order to achieve continuous InN layers on GaN (0001) a two-step growth approach is introduced. In that approach, InN is nucleated at low temperatures on GaN and the growth continues until full coalescence of the nucleated islands. Subsequently, this nucleation layer is overgrown at higher substrate temperature in order to achieve high-quality continuous films. The InN films grown by the two-step method were investigated by x-ray diffraction, Hall-effect measurements, and transmission electron microscopy. It was found that the lattice mismatch between InN and GaN is almost completely accommodated by the development of a misfit dislocation network at the interface. Optimum group-III to active nitrogen flux ratios and substrate temperature conditions were identified for the two-step growth process. Films, grown under those conditions, exhibited full width at half maximum of x-ray rocking curves at (0004) and (105) diffractions equal to 360 and 435 arc sec, respectively. Room-temperature Hall mobility was found to depend sensitively on the group-III to active nitrogen flux ratio during growth of the main step and to be independent of the structural properties of the films. Mobilities up to 860 cm2/V s at carrier concentration of 1.6×1019 cm−3 were measured.

Compositional modulation in InxGa1−xN: TEM and X-ray studies[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) have been used to study compositional modulation in InxGa1−x N layers grown with compositions close to miscibility gap. The samples (0.34 < x < 0.8) were deposited by molecular beam epitaxy using either a 200 nm thick AlN or GaN buffer layer grown on a sapphire substrate. Periodic compositional modulation leads to extra electron diffraction spots and satellite reflections in XRD in the theta–2theta coupled geometry. The ordering period Δ measured along c-axis was about Δ = 45 Å for x = 0.5 and Δ = 66 Å for x = 0.78 for samples grown on AlN buffer layer. TEM and XRD determinations of Δ were in good agreement. Compositional modulation was not observed for the sample with x = 0.34 grown on a GaN buffer layer. Larger values of Δ were observed for layers with higher In content and for those having larger mismatch with the underlying AlN buffer layer. The possibility that the roughness of the AlN growth surface promotes strong In segregation on particular crystallographic planes leading to compositional modulation is considered.

Two-dimensional electron gases induced by spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization charges in N- and Ga-face AlGaN/GaN heterostructures[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Carrier concentration profiles of two-dimensional electron gases are investigated in wurtzite, Ga-face AlxGa1−xN/GaN/AlxGa1−xN and N-face GaN/AlxGa1−xN/GaN heterostructures used for the fabrication of field effect transistors. Analysis of the measured electron distributions in heterostructures with AlGaN barrier layers of different Al concentrations (0.15<x<0.5) and thickness between 20 and 65 nm demonstrate the important role of spontaneous and piezoelectric polarization on the carrier confinement at GaN/AlGaN and AlGaN/GaN interfaces. Characterization of the electrical properties of nominally undoped transistor structures reveals the presence of high sheet carrier concentrations, increasing from 6×1012 to 2×1013 cm−2 in the GaN channel with increasing Al-concentration from x = 0.15 to 0.31. The observed high sheet carrier concentrations and strong confinement at specific interfaces of the N- and Ga-face pseudomorphic grown heterostructures can be explained as a consequence of interface charges induced by piezoelectric and spontaneous polarization effects.

Minority carrier diffusion length and lifetime in GaN[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Electron beam induced current measurements on planar Schottky diodes on undoped GaN grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition are reported. The minority carrier diffusion length of 0.28 μm has been measured, indicating minority carrier lifetime of 6.5 ns. The tapping mode atomic force microscopy imaging of the surfaces and scanning electron microscopy of the cross sections have been used to characterize the linear dislocations and columnar structure of the GaN. The possible influence of recombination on the extended defects in GaN on the minority carrier diffusion length and lifetime is discussed, and contrasted to other recombination mechanisms.

Absorption coefficient, energy gap, exciton binding energy, and recombination lifetime of GaN obtained from transmission measurements[edit | edit source]

Abstract: The absorption coefficient for a 0.4-μm-thick GaN layer grown on a polished sapphire substrate was determined from transmission measurements at room temperature. A strong, well defined exciton peak for the A and B excitons was obtained. The A, B, and C excitonic features are clearly defined at 77 K. At room temperature, an energy gap Eg = 3.452±0.001 eV and an exciton binding energy ExA,B = 20.4±0.5 meV for the A and B excitons and ExC = 23.5±0.5 meV for the C exciton were determined by analysis of the absorption coefficient. From this measured absorption coefficient, together with the detailed balance approach of van Roosbroek and Shockley, the radiative constant B = 1.1×10−8 cm3/s was obtained.

Microcavity effects in GaN epitaxial films and in Ag/GaN/sapphire structures[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Luminescence spectra of GaN epitaxial layers grown on sapphire display a strong intensity modulation of the below-band gap transitions and on the low-energy side of the near-band gap transition. The intensity modulation is attributed to a microcavity formed by the semiconductor–air and semiconductor–substrate interface. The microcavity effect is enhanced by using metallic reflectors which increase the cavity finesse. It is shown that microcavity effects can be used to determine the refractive index of the microcavity active material. Using this method, the GaN refractive index is determined and expressed analytically by a Sellmeir fit.

Nonalloyed ohmic contacts on GaN using InN/GaN short‐period superlattices[edit | edit source]

Abstract: It is well known that ohmic contacts on GaN, a highly promising material for electronic and optoelectronic devices with a wide band gap of about 3.4 eV, constitute a major obstacle to further development of devices based on this material. Author(s) demonstrated a novel scheme of nonalloyed ohmic contacts on GaN using a short‐period superlattice (SPS), composed of GaN and narrow band‐gap InN, sandwiched between the GaN channel and an InN cap layer. Comparison with a similar layer without the SPS structure indicates that quantum tunneling through the SPS conduction band effectively reduces the potential barrier formed by the InN/GaN heterostructure leading to low contact resistivities. From the transmission‐line‐method measurements, specific contact resistances as low as 6×10−5 Ω cm2 with GaN doped at about 5×1018 cm−3 have been obtained without any post‐annealing. Theoretical estimation based on the SPS tunneling model is consistent with the experiment.

RF-Molecular Beam Epitaxy Growth and Properties of InN and Related Alloys[edit | edit source]

Abstract: The fundamental band gap of InN has been thought to be about 1.9 eV for a long time. Recent developments of metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) and RF-molecular beam epitaxy (RF-MBE) growth technologies have made it possible to obtain high-quality InN films. A lot of experimental results have been presented very recently, suggesting that the true band-gap energy of InN should be less than 1.0 eV. In this paper, Author(s) review the results of the detailed study of RF-MBE growth conditions for obtaining high-quality InN films. The full widths at half maximum (FWHMs) of ω-mode X-ray diffraction (XRD), ω–2θ mode XRD and E2 (high-frequency)-phonon-mode peaks in the Raman scattering spectrum of the grown layer were 236.7 arcsec, 28.9 arcsec and 3.7 cm-1, respectively. The carrier concentration and room temperature electron mobility were 4.9×1018 cm-3 and 1130 cm2/Vs, respectively. Photoluminescence and optical absorption measurements of these high-quality InN films have clearly demonstrated that the fundamental band gap of InN is about 0.8 eV. Studies on the growth and characterization of InGaN alloys over the entire alloy composition further supported that the fundamental band gap of InN is about 0.8 eV.

Intrinsic Electron Accumulation at Clean InN Surfaces[edit | edit source]

Abstract: The electronic structure of clean InN(0001) surfaces has been investigated by high-resolution electron-energy-loss spectroscopy of the conduction band electron plasmon excitations. An intrinsic surface electron accumulation layer is found to exist and is explained in terms of a particularly low Γ-point conduction band minimum in wurtzite InN. As a result, surface Fermi level pinning high in the conduction band in the vicinity of the Γ point, but near the average midgap energy, produces charged donor-type surface states with associated downward band bending. Semiclassical dielectric theory simulations of the energy-loss spectra and charge-profile calculations indicate a surface state density of 2.5   (±0.2)×1013   cm-2 and a surface Fermi level of 1.64±0.10   eV above the valence band maximum.

Origin of defect-insensitive emission probability in In-containing (Al,In,Ga)N alloy semiconductors[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Group-III-nitride semiconductors have shown enormous potential as light sources for full-colour displays, optical storage and solid-state lighting. Remarkably, InGaN blue- and green-light-emitting diodes (LEDs) emit brilliant light although the threading dislocation density generated due to lattice mismatch is six orders of magnitude higher than that in conventional LEDs. Here Author(s) explain why In-containing (Al,In,Ga)N bulk films exhibit a defect-insensitive emission probability. From the extremely short positron diffusion lengths (<4 nm) and short radiative lifetimes of excitonic emissions, Author(s) conclude that localizing valence states associated with atomic condensates of In–N preferentially capture holes, which have a positive charge similar to positrons. The holes form localized excitons to emit the light, although some of the excitons recombine at non-radiative centres. The enterprising use of atomically inhomogeneous crystals is proposed for future innovation in light emitters even when using defective crystals.

Calculation of critical layer thickness versus lattice mismatch for GexSi1−x/Si strained‐layer heterostructures[edit | edit source]

Abstract: A calculation of the critical layer thickness hc for growth of GexSi1−x strained layers on Si substrates is presented for 0≤x≤1.0. The present results are obtained assuming misfit dislocation generation is determined solely by energy balance. This approach differs therefore from previous theories (e.g., Matthews et al.), in which the absence of mechanical equilibrium for grown‐in threading dislocations determines the onset of the generation of interfacial misfit dislocations. It is assumed that interfacial misfit dislocations will be generated when the areal strain energy density of the film exceeds the energy density associated with the formation of a screw dislocation at a distance from the free surface equal to the film thickness h. For films thicker than this critical value, screw (and edge) dislocations will be generated at the film/substrate interface. Values obtained for the critical thickness versus lattice mismatch are in excellent agreement with measurements of hc for GexSi1−x strained layers on Si substrates.

248 nm cathodoluminescence in Al1−xInxN(0001) thin films grown on lattice-matched Ti1−yZryN(111) seed layers by low temperature magnetron sputter epitaxy[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Single-crystal Al0.8In0.2N(0001) thin films were grown epitaxially onto lattice-matched Ti0.2Zr0.8N(111) seed layers on MgO(111) substrates at 300 °C by magnetron sputter epitaxy. Low-energy ion-assisted epitaxial growth conditions were achieved by applying a substrate potential of −15 V. Cross-sectional high-resolution electron microscopy verified the epitaxy and high-resolution x-ray diffraction ω-rocking scans of the Al0.8In0.2N 0002 peak (full width at half maximum ∼ 2400 arc sec) indicated a high structural quality of the films. Cathodoluminescence measurements performed in a scanning electron microscope at 5 K revealed Al0.8In0.2N luminescence at 248 nm, or equivalently 5.0 eV, showing that Al0.8In0.2N is a promising material for deep-ultraviolet optoelectronic devices.

Dielectric functions and optical parameters of Si, Ge, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InP, InAs, and InSb from 1.5 to 6.0 eV[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Author(s) report values of pseudodielectric functions 〈ε〉=〈ε1〉+i〈ε2〉 measured by spectroscopic ellipsometry and refractive indices ñ=n+ik, reflectivities R, and absorption coefficients α calculated from these data. Rather than correct ellipsometric results for the presence of overlayers, Author(s) have removed these layers as far as possible using the real-time capability of the spectroscopic ellipsometer to assess surface quality during cleaning. Author(s) results are compared with previous data. In general, there is good agreement among optical parameters measured on smooth, clean, and undamaged samples maintained in an inert atmosphere regardless of the technique used to obtain the data. Differences among Author(s) data and previous results can generally be understood in terms of inadequate sample preparation, although results obtained by Kramers-Kronig analysis of reflectance measurements often show effects due to improper extrapolations. The present results illustrate the importance of proper sample preparation and of the capability of separately determining both ε1 and ε2 in optical measurements.

Hydrogen generation by solar water splitting using p-InGaN photoelectrochemical cells[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Photoelectrochemical effects in p-InxGa1−xN (0 ≤ x ≤ 0.22) alloys have been investigated. Hydrogen generation was observed in p-InGaN semiconducting electrodes under white light illumination with additional bias. It was found that p-InGaN alloys possess much higher conversion efficiencies than p-GaN. Time dependent photocurrent density characteristics showed that the stability of p-InGaN in aqueous HBr is excellent. The photocurrent density was found to increase almost linearly with hole mobility and excitation light intensity.

Direct hydrogen gas generation by using InGaN epilayers as working electrodes[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Author(s) report on the growth and exploitation of InGaN epilayers as a photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) material for direct generation of hydrogen by splitting water using photoelectrochemical hydrolysis. Under white light illumination, a drastic dependence of the photocurrent density on the In content was observed. Direct hydrogen gas generation by splitting water was accomplished using an n-type InxGa1−xN epilayer with a relatively high In content (x ∼ 0.4) as a working electrode. This demonstration of hydrogen generation by water splitting accomplished using InGaN based PEC is highly encouraging.

Activation of acceptors in Mg‐doped GaN grown by metalorganic chemical vapor deposition[edit | edit source]

Abstract: The activation kinetics of acceptors was investigated for heteroepitaxial layers of GaN, doped with Mg. After growth, the samples were exposed to isochronal rapid thermal anneals in the temperature range from 500 to 775 °C. The samples were studied by variable temperature Hall effect measurements and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy in the as‐grown condition and after each temperature step. The thermal treatment reduced the resistivity by six orders of magnitude and the p‐type conductivity was found to be dominated by an acceptor with an activation energy of ∼170 meV. This acceptor is attributed to Mg atoms substituting for Ga in the GaN lattice and the activation process is consistent with dissociation of electrically inactive Mg–H complexes. It is shown that the appearance of a blue emission band in the PL spectrum of Mg‐doped GaN does not directly correlate with the increase in p‐type conductivity.

Phase separation in InGaN thick films and formation of InGaN/GaN double heterostructures in the entire alloy composition[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Author(s) report the growth of InGaN thick films and InGaN/GaN double heterostructures by molecular beam epitaxy at the substrate temperatures 700–800 °C, which is optimal for the growth of GaN. X-ray diffraction and optical absorption studies show phase separation of InN for InxGal−xN thick films with x>0.3. On the other hand, InxGal−xN/GaN double heterostructures show no evidence of phase separation within the detection capabilities of Author(s) methods. These observations were accounted for using Stringfellow's model on phase separation, which gives a critical temperature for miscibility of the GaN–InN system equal to 2457 K.

Low-resistance nonalloyed ohmic contact to p-type GaN using strained InGaN contact layer[edit | edit source]

Abstract: A strained InGaN contact layer inserted between Pd/Au and p-type GaN resulted in low ohmic contact resistance without any special treatments. The thickness and In mole fraction of the p-type InGaN varied from 2 nm to 15 nm and from 0.14 to 0.23, respectively. Strained InGaN layers are effective in reducing the contact resistance. A contact layer of 2 nm thick strained In0.19Ga0.81N showed the lowest specific contact resistance of 1.1×10−6 Ω cm2. The mechanism for the lower contact resistance is ascribed to enhanced tunneling transport due to large polarization-induced band bending at the surface as well as to the high hole concentration in p-type InGaN.

Universality of electron accumulation at wurtzite c- and a-plane and zinc-blende InN surfaces[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Electron accumulation is found to occur at the surface of wurtzite (11-20), (0001), and (000-1) and zinc-blende (001) InN using x-ray photoemission spectroscopy. The accumulation is shown to be a universal feature of InN surfaces. This is due to the low Γ-point conduction band minimum lying significantly below the charge neutrality level.

When group-III nitrides go infrared: New properties and perspectives[edit | edit source]

Abstract: Wide-band-gap GaN and Ga-rich InGaN alloys, with energy gaps covering the blue and near-ultraviolet parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, are one group of the dominant materials for solid state lighting and lasing technologies and consequently, have been studied very well. Much less effort has been devoted to InN and In-rich InGaN alloys. A major breakthrough in 2002, stemming from much improved quality of InN films grown using molecular beam epitaxy, resulted in the bandgap of InN being revised from 1.9 eV to a much narrower value of 0.64 eV. This finding triggered a worldwide research thrust into the area of narrow-band-gap group-III nitrides. The low value of the InN bandgap provides a basis for a consistent description of the electronic structure of InGaN and InAlN alloys with all compositions. It extends the fundamental bandgap of the group III-nitride alloy system over a wider spectral region, ranging from the near infrared at ∼ 1.9 μm (0.64 eV for InN) to the ultraviolet at ∼ 0.36 μm (3.4 eV for GaN) or 0.2 μm (6.2 eV for AlN). The continuous range of bandgap energies now spans the near infrared, raising the possibility of new applications for group-III nitrides. In this article author(s) present a detailed review of the physical properties of InN and related group III-nitride semiconductors. The electronic structure, carrier dynamics, optical transitions, defect physics, doping disparity, surface effects, and phonon structure will be discussed in the context of the InN bandgap re-evaluation. Author(s) will then describe the progress, perspectives, and challenges in the developments of new electronic and optoelectronic devices based on InGaN alloys. Advances in characterization and understanding of InN and InGaN nanostructures will also be reviewed in comparison to their thin film counterparts.

References[edit | edit source]


FA info icon.svg Angle down icon.svg Page data
Authors Ankitvora, Chenlong Zhang
License CC-BY-SA-4.0
Language English (en)
Related 0 subpages, 3 pages link here
Impact 195 page views
Created May 22, 2022 by Irene Delgado
Modified June 9, 2023 by StandardWikitext bot
Cookies help us deliver our services. By using our services, you agree to our use of cookies.