Role of knowledge and technology in development/Bibliography

Bibliography[edit | edit source]

Adger, W. Neil, and Solomon Chigume. Methodologies and Institutions in Zimbabwe's Evolving Environmental Assessment Framework. Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe: Dept. of Agricultural Economics and Extension, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zimbabwe,

1. Alvares, Claude. "Science." In The Development Dictionary : A Guide to Knowledge as Power, edited by Wolfgang Sachs, 219-32. London ; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Zed Books,
2. Asian Development Bank. Handbook for the Economic Analysis of Health Sector Projects. Manila, Philippines: Project Economic Evaluation Division, Economics and Development Resource Center,
3. Attwood, Donald W., Thomas C. Bruneau, and John G. Galaty. Power and Poverty : Development and Development Projects in the Third World. Edited by John G. Galaty. Boulder: Westview Press,
4. Bagachwa, M. S. D. "Choice of Technology in Small and Large Firms: Grain Milling in Tanzania." World Development 20 (1992): 97-107. Bank Information Center. The Ongoing Struggle for World Bank Transparency: The Outcome of the Information Disclosure Policy Review [1]. 2001 [cited January 30 2005]. Batteson, Helen, Key Davey, and Rod Shaw. Guidance Manual on Water Supply and Sanitation Programmes. London, UK: WEDC, Loughborough University, UK,
5. Baum, Warren. "The Project Cycle." Finance and development 7, no. 2 (1970). ———. "The World Bank Project Cycle." Finance and development 15, no. 4 (1978). Becker, Elizabeth. "Number of Hungry Rising, U.N. Says." New York Times, Dec 8
6. Bell, Simon, and Stephen Morse. Sustainability Indicators : Measuring the Immeasurable? Sustainability Indicators. London: Earthscan Publications,
7. Bourdieu, Pierre, and Randal Johnson. The Field of Cultural Production : Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press,
8. Chambers, Robert G. Rural Appraisal : Rapid, Relaxed and Participatory, Discussion Paper (University of Sussex. Institute of Development Studies) Dp
9. Brighton, England: Institute of Development Studies,
10. Cusworth, J. W., and T. R. Franks. Managing Projects in Developing Countries. Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essex, England New York: Longman Scientific & Technical ; Wiley,
11. Daly, Herman E. Beyond Growth : The Economics of Sustainable Development. Boston: Beacon Press,
12. 155

Dasgupta, Partha, Amartya Kumar Sen, and Stephen A. Marglin. Guidelines for Project Evaluation, Project Formulation and Evaluation Series, No.

1. New York,: United Nations,
2. Diamond, Jared M. Guns, Germs, and Steel. New York: Spark Pub..
3. Dixon, John A., Asian Development Bank, and World Bank. Economic Analysis of Environmental Impacts. 2nd ed. London: Earthscan Publications,
4. Eade, Deborah, Suzanne Williams, and Oxfam. The Oxfam Handbook of Development and Relief. Oxford, UK: Oxfam,
5. Emmanuel, Arghiri. Unequal Exchange; a Study of the Imperialism of Trade. New York: [Monthly Review Press,
6. Emmanuel, Arghiri, Celso Furtado, and Hartmut Elsenhans. Appropriate or Underdeveloped Technology?, Wiley/Irm Series on Multinationals. Chichester ; New York: J. Wiley,
7. English, J. Morley. Cost-Effectiveness: The Economic Evaluation of Engineered Systems. New York,: Wiley,
8. ESCAP. Technology Atlas Project. 6 vols. Vol.
9. Bangalore: United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP),
10. Escobar, Arturo. Encountering Development : The Making and Unmaking of the Third World, Princeton Studies in Culture/Power/History. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
11. ———. "Planning." In The Development Dictionary : A Guide to Knowledge as Power, edited by Wolfgang Sachs, 132-45. London ; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Zed Books,
12. Fabrycky, W. J., and Benjamin S. Blanchard. Life-Cycle Cost and Economic Analysis, Prentice Hall International Series in Industrial and Systems Engineering. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall,
13. Ferguson, Anne E. "Gendered Science: A Critique of Agricultural Development." American Anthropologist 96, no. 3 (1994): 540-52. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The State of Food Insecurity in the World. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
14. Forsyth, David J. C., Norman S. McBain, and Robert F. Solomon. "Technical Rigidity and Appropriate Technology in Less Developed Countries." World Development 8, no. 5-6 (1980): 371-98. Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. [1st American ed. New York,: Pantheon Books,
15. Galbraith, John Kenneth. The New Industrial State. 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
16. ———. The New Industrial State. Boston,: Houghton Mifflin,
17. ———. "Technology in the Developed Economy." In Science and Technology in Economic Growth; Proceedings of a Conference Held by the International 156

Economic Association at St Anton, Austria, edited by Bruce Rodda Williams, xviii, 446 p. New York,: Wiley,

1. Goodman, Louis J., Ralph Ngatata Love, and East-West Center. Project Planning and Management : An Integrated Approach, Pergamon Policy Studies on Socio- Economic Development. New York: Published in cooperation with the East-West Center, Hawaii [by] Pergamon Press,
2. Grammig, Thomas. Technical Knowledge and Development : Observing Aid Projects and Processes. New York: Routledge,
3. Harvey, Peter, Sohrab Baghri, and Bob Reed. Emergency Sanitation: Assessment and Programme Design. Leicestershire, UK: WEDC, Loughborough University, UK,
4. Hawken, Paul, Amory B. Lovins, and L. Hunter Lovins. Natural Capitalism : Creating the Next Industrial Revolution. 1st ed. Boston: Little, Brown and Co.,
5. Heitger, Lester E., Pekin Ogan, and Serge Matulich. Cost Accounting. 2nd ed. Cincinnati, Ohio: College Division, South-Western Pub. Co.,
6. Hirschman, Albert O. Development Projects Observed. Washington,: Brookings Institution,
7. ———. Development Projects Observed. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution,
8. Illich, Ivan. Tools for Conviviality. [1st ed. New York,: Harper & Row,
9. James, Jeffrey. "Public Choice, Technology and Industrialization in Tanzania: Some Paradoxes Resolved." Public Choice 89, no. 3-4 (1996): 375-92. ———. "Trait-Making for Labour-Intensive Technology in Sub-Saharan Africa." Research Policy 29, no. 6 (2000): 757-66. James, Jeffrey, and Haider Khan. "Technology Choice and Income Distribution." World Development 25, no. 2 (1997): 153-65. Kaplinsky, Raphael. Automation : The Technology and Society. Harlow, Essex, UK: Longman,
10. Katz, Jorge M. Technology Generation in Latin American Manufacturing Industries : Theory and Case-Studies Concerning Its Nature, Magnitude, and Consequences. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press,
11. Landes, David S. The Wealth and Poverty of Nations : Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor. New York: W.W. Norton,
12. Lawton, Thomas C., James N. Rosenau, and Amy Verdun. Strange Power : Shaping the Parameters of International Relations and International Political Economy. Aldershot ; Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate,
13. Long, Carolyn M. Participation of the Poor in Development Initiatives : Taking Their Rightful Places. London ; Sterling, VA :: Earthscan Publications,
14. Madu, Christian N. Strategic Planning in Technology Transfer to Less Developed Countries. New York: Quorum Books,
15. 157

McRobie, G. "Technology for Development - What Is Appropriate for Rich and Poor Countries: Global Perspective Ii." Science Technology and Development 13, no. 3 (1995): 11-23. Meadows, Donella H., and Club of Rome. The Limits to Growth; a Report for the Club of Rome's Project on the Predicament of Mankind. New York,: Universe Books,

1. Montgomery, Richard. Resources in Social Development Practice Volume
2. Short Guidance Note on How to Do Stakeholder Analysis of Aid Projects and Programmes. Edited by Alan Rew. 3 vols. Vol. 3, Resources in Social Development Practice. Swansea, United Kingdom: Centre for Development Studies, University of Wales Swansea,
3. NORAD. The Logical Framework Approach (Lfa) : Handbook for Objectives-Oriented Project Planning. [Norway]: NORAD, Norwegian Agency for Development Co- operation,
4. OECD. North/South Technology Transfer : The Adjustments Ahead. Paris [Washington, D.C.]: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ; OECD Publications and Information Center],
5. Overseas Development Administration. The Manual of Environmental Appraisal. [Revised]. ed. [London]: Overseas Development Administration,
6. Pelt, Michiel J. F. van. Ecological Sustainability and Project Appraisal : Case Studies in Developing Countries. Aldershot: Avebury,
7. Petry, F. "Who Is Afraid of Choices? A Proposal for Multi-Criteria Analysis as a Tool Fro Decision-Making Support in Development Planning." Journal of International Development 2, no. 2 (1990). Postman, Neil. Technopoly : The Surrender of Culture to Technology. 1st ed. New York: Knopf,
8. Potts, David. Project Planning and Analysis for Development. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Pub.,
9. Rietbergen-McCracken, Jennifer, and Deepa Narayan-Parker. Participation and Social Assessment : Tools and Techniques. Washington, D.C.: World Bank,
10. Rietbergen-McCracken, Jennifer, Deepa Narayan-Parker, and World Bank. Environment Dept. Social Policy and Resettlement Division. Participatory Tools and Techniques : A Resource Kit for Participation and Social Assessment. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Social Policy and Resettlement Division Environmental Dept.,
11. Rodd, M G. "Human-Centered Manufacturing for the Developing World." IEEE Technology and Society Magazine 13 (1994): 25-32. Rodwin, Lloyd. Schon, Donald A. Editors. Rethinking the Development Experience : Essays Provoked by the Work of Albert O. Hirschman / Lloyd Rodwin, Donald A. Schon, Editors. Edited by Lloyd. Rodwin and Donald A. Schon. Washington, 158

D.C. : Cambridge, Mass. :: Brookings Institution ; Lincoln Institute of Land Policy,,

1. Rosenberg, Nathan. Inside the Black Box : Technology and Economics. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire] ; New York: Cambridge University Press,
2. Sachs, Wolfgang. The Development Dictionary : A Guide to Knowledge as Power. London ; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Zed Books,
3. Schumacher, E. F. Small Is Beautiful; Economics as If People Mattered. New York,: Harper & Row,
4. Shiva, Vandana. Biopiracy : The Plunder of Nature and Knowledge. Boston, MA: South End Press,
5. Smillie, Ian. Mastering the Machine Revisited : Poverty, Aid and Technology. London: ITDG Publishing,
6. Theis, Joachim, Heather M. Grady, International Institute for Environment and Development., and Save the Children (U.S.). Participatory Rapid Appraisal for Community Development : A Training Manual Based on Experiences in the Middle East and North Africa. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development : Save the Children Federation,
7. Ullrich, Otto. "Technology." In The Development Dictionary : A Guide to Knowledge as Power, edited by Wolfgang Sachs, 275-87. London ; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Zed Books,
8. United Nations. "Planning the Technological Transformation of Developing Countries." United Nations U.N. Doc. TD/B/C.6/50 (1981) United Nations Environment Programme. Environmental Impact Assessment : Basic Procedures for Developing Countries. [Bangkok, Thailand]: Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific,
9. White, John A. Principles of Engineering Economic Analysis. 4th ed. New York: Wiley,
10. Winner, Langdon. "Do Artifacts Have Politics?" In The Whale and the Reactor : A Search for Limits in an Age of High Technology, edited by Langdon Winner, 19-
11. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
12. Winpenny, J. T. The Economic Appraisal of Environmental Projects and Policies : A Practical Guide. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ; Washington D.C. : OECD Publications and Information Center [distributor],
13. ———. Values for the Environment : A Guide to Economic Appraisal. London: Hmso,
14. World Bank. Knowledge for Development, World Development Report, 1998/99. New York: Published for the World Bank Oxford University Press,
15. ———. Social Analysis Sourcebook: Incorporating Social Dimensions into Bank- Supported Projects [Online]. Social Development Department, 2003 [cited March 22 2005]. Available from 159

http://www.worldbank.org/socialanalysissourcebook/SocialAnalysisSourcebookF INAL2003Dec.pdf. World Bank. Environment Dept. Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, World Bank Technical Paper, 0253-7494 No. 139, 140,

1. Washington, D.C.: World Bank,
2. World Commission on Dams. Dams and Development : A New Framework for Decision- Making. London: Earthscan,
3. World Commission on Environment and Development. Our Common Future. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press,
4. World Water Assessment Programme of the United Nations. Water for People, Water for Life : A Joint Report by the Twenty Three Un Agencies Concerned with Freshwater, The United Nations World Water Development Report. New York: UNESCO Pub. : Berghahn Books,

PDF of this Page and Origin of Document[edit | edit source]

• Template:Pdf2
• This file was originally taken from http://online.sfsu.edu/~valverde/documents/valverdethesis2005.pdf.
• Converted from PDF to wikimarkup at Sat, 25 Oct 2008 05:42:05 +0200 with pdf2wiki script.

80

60

40

20 500000 0 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Figure 18: Energy investments in developing countries by OECD members ($ amount, 2002 prices) Source: OECD Creditor Reporting System Database 134

Totals per Year (x1000)

8000000 Renewable 7000000 Hydro Non Renewable 6000000

150

5000000

4000000

3000000

Analysis And Appraisal ..................................................................................75 vi Planning and managing projects: Objective Oriented Project Planning

and the Logical Framework.................................................................................75

Cost-benefit analysis ...........................................................................................84

Social analysis .....................................................................................................91

Environmental analysis .......................................................................................96

Other dimensions. Integration of criteria...........................................................101

1. Actual Assessment In The Case Of Energy Projects .................105 Analysis of World Bank documents..................................................................105

Findings of the World Commission on Dams ...................................................123 6. Final Considerations .................................................................................131

1. Alternatives In An Appraisal Report...........................153==

Bibliography .......................................................................................................154

vii LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Typical stakeholder table for a development project...........................................58

Table 2: Typical participatory matrix for a development project ......................................59

Table 3: Stakeholder Analysis table from TeamUp methodology and

software.......................................................................................................................61

Table 4: Stakeholder table for a private sector population project in Pakistan

funded by ODA...........................................................................................................65

Table 5: Participation matrix for a private sector population project in

Pakistan funded by ODA ............................................................................................66

Table 6: Stakeholder table for Water Supply and Sanitation project funded

by DFID ......................................................................................................................68

Table 7: Participation matrix for a Water Supply and Sanitation project

funded by DFID..........................................................................................................69

Table 8: Stakeholder table for Emergency Sanitation projects..........................................71

Table 9: Participatory matrix for an Emergency Sanitation Project ..................................72

Table 10: Logical Framework Matrix................................................................................80

Table 11: Examples of analysis of alternatives in large dam projects.............................130

viii LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Main framework for Technology and Development..........................................18

Figure 2: Technology and the Economy............................................................................20

Figure 3: Integral view of technology, society and development......................................27

Figure 4: Technology and Power.......................................................................................35

Figure 5: Technology and the Environment ......................................................................42

Figure 6: Baum's project cycle...........................................................................................49

Figure 7: Problem tree in Objective Oriented Project Planning ........................................77

Figure 8: Social Assessment process according to the World Bank..................................93

Figure 9: average space allocated to each of the five aspects..........................................111

Figure 10: Detailed break down of the social aspect .......................................................112

Figure 11: average space allocated weighted by project's total $ amount .......................114

Figure 12: Detailed break down of the social aspect (weighted by project's

$ amount) ..................................................................................................................115

Figure 13: Projects assigned to energy subcategories......................................................116

Figure 14: Projects assigned to energy subcategories, weighted by $ amount................118

Figure 15: relative importance of the five aspects by project type ..................................119

ix Figure 16: Evolution of economic and financial assessment for large dam

projects......................................................................................................................126

Figure 17: Evolution of environmental and social assessment for large dam

projects......................................................................................................................127

Figure 18: Energy investments in developing countries by OECD members

($ amount, 2002 prices) ............................................................................................133

Figure 19: Energy investments in developing countries by OECD members

($ Total, 2002 prices)................................................................................................134

Figure 20: Energy investments in developing countries by OECD members

(n. projects) ...............................................................................................................135

Figure 21: Energy investments in developing countries by OECD memebers

(total projects)...........................................................................................................136

x 1

1. Introduction[edit | edit source]

Planet Earth. 2004 CE. Two robotic explorers arrive and land successfully on planet

Mars after a 6 months trip from planet Earth of about 60 million miles. The president of

the United States announces a new expensive goal of sending human beings to Mars.

Planet Earth. 2004 CE. 852 million human beings, more than 13% of humankind, are

malnourished— a number that increased over the last 4 years. At least five million

children under the age of 5 die a year as a result of malnutrition and associated diseases

(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2004) .

The belief that technology is fundamental for development, characteristic of Western

modernity, and the pervasive faith in scientific and technical knowledge has inspired the

field of "development" since its inception in the aftermath of World War II. In 1949,

during his first speech as president of the U.S., Harry S. Truman stated:

More than half the people of the world are living in conditions approaching misery… Their poverty is a handicap and a threat both to them and to more prosperous areas. For the first time in history humanity possesses the knowledge and the skill to relieve the suffering of these people … I believe that we should make available to peace-loving peoples the benefits of our store of technical knowledge in order to help them realize their aspirations for a better life … Greater production is the key to prosperity and peace. And the key to greater production is a wider and more vigorous application of modern scientific and technical knowledge.1

Many consider Truman's speech the beginning of a new era where the industrially

advanced countries of the world would concern themselves with the "development" of

1 President Harry Truman, Inaugural address as president of the United States, 20 January 1949, in Documents on American Foreign Relations, Connecticut: Princeton University Press,

1. 2

the so called less developed countries (LDCs). More than two decades later, after

American technological prowess had been able to send a man to the moon, then-Secretary

of State Henry Kissinger stated:

For the first time we may have the technical capacity to free mankind from the scourge of hunger. Therefore today we must proclaim a bold objective: that within a decade, no child will go to bed hungry, that no family will fear for its next day's bread, and that no human being's future will be stunted by malnutrition.2

Today, three decades after Kissinger's statement, still many children go to bed

hungry, many families do not have enough food, and malnutrition is a terrible problem in

many areas of the world. Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger is still today at the

top of the international community's agenda – note the United Nations's Millennium

Development Goals. What went wrong? Do we not, or did we not yet have the technical

capacity to solve these problems? Or does the eradication of poverty around the world

and the economic and social development of LDCs necessitate much more than just

advanced technical capabilities and scientific knowledge?

This author believes the latter to be the case. It has been argued, for example, that

genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and specifically genetically engineered crops

constitute the technological panacea that, if sufficiently mastered and promoted, will do

away with hunger in the world. Hartwig de Haen, the assistant director general in the

economic and social department of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),

said in an interview after the release of FAO's report The state of food insecurity in the

2 Henry Kissinger, World Food Conference, Rome,

1. 3

World 2004 that "the world in aggregate is getting wealthier and producing more than

enough food … The problem is the access of people to jobs, to resources, to land and to

money to buy food. (Becker, 2004)

This author agrees with Attwood, Bruneau and Galaty, when they assert that

"poverty reduction depends more on the distribution of political power than it does on the

impact of capital, technology or markets."(Attwood, et al., 1988: 10).

Technology by itself will not solve the problem of poverty and hunger, although it is

certainly an important tool that, if used properly, can help the international community,

and practitioners of "development" in particular, in the pursuit of that goal.

Almost any development intervention, whether or not it is related directly to issues

of technology transfer, technical assistance, or technological capacity development,

makes use of a specific technology to reach its goals. This means that at some point any

development intervention chooses, whether implicitly or explicitly, one type of

technology over another.3 For example, in an area where many people suffer from

malnutrition, would it be appropriate to introduce capital-intensive modern agricultural

3 The term "technology" in used in a rather loose manner here, referring to two different technologies as two different ways to reach a goal. If the goal is to provide energy for lighting and cooking in a village, the different technologies that could be used would include a connection to the electricity grid, an off-grid electricity supply such as photovoltaic power or wind power, or wood burning for cooking and kerosene lamps for lighting. Next chapter includes a discussion of the definition of technology. For extensive discussions on the subject read Arghiri Emmanuel's Appropriate or Underdeveloped Technology? (1982) and Raphael Kaplinsky's Automation: The Technology and Society (1984). 4

technologies using GMOs for increased productivity, or might it be better to support a

land redistribution program and traditional agricultural techniques supported by irrigation

based on human-powered water pumps?

How and why one type of technology is chosen over another, who is involved in that

decision, and whether there is any consideration given to potential technological

alternatives are the main concerns of this thesis.

There are numerous scholarly works concerning the role technology plays in

different aspects of human life on Earth. Several authors discuss the relationship between

technology and society from historical (Diamond, 2003; Landes, 1999), anthropological

and sociopolitical (Hawken, et al., 1999; Kaplinsky, 1984; Postman, 1992), and

philosophical (Illich, 1973) perspectives. There is a plethora of authors discussing the

importance of technology in developed economies from an economic point of view

(Galbraith, 1985; Galbraith, 1973; Rosenberg, 1982). In the development literature there

is abundant material on the role of technology in developing nations (Emmanuel, et al.,

1982; Escobar, 1995; Schumacher, 1973; Smillie, 2000; World Bank, 1998), and on

technology transfer between nations and its different mechanisms (Katz, 1987; Madu,

1992). Also within the literature on development, many studies address the

appropriateness or adequacy of the technologies promoted and used in developing

countries and the effects of choosing one specific technology over another (Forsyth, et

al., 1980; James, 2000; James and Khan, 1997; McRobie, 1995; Rodd, 1994; World

Water Assessment Programme of the United Nations, 2003). 5

However, the literature is not so abundant in studies that focus on the dynamics of

actual development interventions, on the understanding of the processes involved and the

interactions between the various stakeholders concerned. Most of what is written in this

regard takes the form of internal evaluation reports on projects or programs implemented

by bilateral and multilateral agencies such as USAID or the World Bank and is, therefore,

not readily available. The fact that the pioneer work by Hirschman on analysis of

development projects, Development projects observed (Hirschman, 1967), was reissued

three decades