Levelised Cost of Electricity Literature Review/Grid Parity

Grid Parity[edit | edit source]

Important note on grid parity: Grid parity is not a fixed number. The price of electricity in the grid varies between users, time of day and geographical location. Some solar systems will certainly be at grid parity already at peak energy prices. Further, the price of electricity will continue to increase if based on fossil fuels and other scarce fuels. [1]

New eBook Shows How Solar Manufacturers Can Shorten the Path to Grid Parity[edit | edit source]

Enhanced Online News, [2],Chapter 3 in Camstar's eBook Series "Winning Profits in the Age of Continuous Innovation" Addresses Solar Industry Challenges,March 31, 2010 08:33 AM Eastern Time

Grid parity is the point at which electricity generated from Solar power is equal to grid power. The eBook applies Camstar's Advancing Product Quality (APQ) model to the Solar industry, and shows how the model enables the achievement of grid parity today. Beyond grid parity, the eBook discusses how the infrastructure creates additional long term value in the areas of global orchestration, greener manufacturing and lifecycle intelligence. "The analysis shows a shift down in the cost per kWh curve by 13-17%, putting some companies in the grid parity region today, and shortening the time to achieve grid parity for the entire Solar industry."

Global Solar Energy Outlook[edit | edit source]

Pike Research. 2010. Global Solar Energy Outlook - Solar Demand Dynamics, Cost Structures, Policy Factors, and Competitive Differentiators for Suppliers: Market Analysis and Forecasts.^[1]

• Report outline and summary given. (Cost $$)
• anticipates that by 2013, in many markets, solar costs will reach the long-elusive goal of grid parity, the cost of electricity from traditional power sources. Between 2010 and 2013, Pike Research forecasts that solar demand will increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 24%.
• Related: Solar Energy Costs to Achieve Grid Parity by 2013, According to Pike Research, http://web.archive.org/web/20100806140755/http://www.electroiq.com:80/index/display/pv-wire-news-display/1214189234.html
• Contact: Pike Research, Matt LeBeau, +1-303-953-9765 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting +1-303-953-9765 end_of_the_skype_highlighting begin_of_the_skype_highlighting +1-303-953-9765 end_of_the_skype_highlighting, press@pikeresearch.com

Grid-Parity Analysis for EU and US Regions and Market Segments 2009[edit | edit source]

C. Breyer, A. Gerlach, J. Müller, H. Behacker, A. Milner Grid-Parity Analysis for EU and US Regions and Market Segments - Dynamics of Grid-Parity and Dependence on Solar Irradiance, Local Electricity Prices and PV Progress Ratio,24th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference, 21-25 September 2009, Hamburg, Germany, 4492 - 4500 [3]

Grid-parity is a very important milestone for further photovoltaic (PV) diffusion. A grid-parity model is presented, which is based on levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) coupled with the experience curve approach. Relevant assumptions for the model are given and its key driving forces are discussed in detail. Results of the analysis are shown for all member states of the European Union and the United States of America, respectively. High PV industry growth rates enable a fast reduction of LCOE. Depletion of fossil fuel resources and climate change mitigation forces societies to internalize these effects and pave the way for sustainable energy technologies. In the EU and the US, first grid-parity events will occur in late 2009 or early 2010 in Italy and Hawaii, respectively. The 2010s are characterized by ongoing grid-parity events throughout the most regions in the EU and the US, reaching an addressable market of about 90% and 65% of total electricity market, respectively. In parallel to grid-parity events, next milestones for PV industry will be diesel-parity and natural gas-parity. Reaching grid-parity will require new political frameworks for maximizing social benefits. PV technology is on the pathway to become a highly competitive energy technology.

Break-Even Cost for Residential Photovoltaics in the United States: Key Drivers and Sensitivities[edit | edit source]

P.Denholm, R. M. Margolis, S. Ong, and B. Roberts 2009, Break-Even Cost for Residential Photovoltaics in the United States: Key Drivers and Sensitivities , December¸2009, Natioal Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Technical Report http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/46909.pdf

• calculation in appendix
• various sensitivities discussed
• Achieving PV breakeven is a function of many variables, including the solar resource, local electricity prices, and various incentives. As a result, for a country like the United States, where these factors vary regionally, there can be considerable variation in break-even cost.

Oerlikon discusses path to $0.70/W thin-film PV panels[edit | edit source]

Vogler, D.. (2009, August).Oerlikon discusses path to $0.70/W thin-film PV panels. Solid StateTechnology, 52(8), 9. Retrieved July 13, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Trade & Industry. (Document ID: 1852027921).^[2]

• O'Brien also addressed the points frequently being discussed at technical conferences - i.e., grid parity - and the seeming concurrence among industry insiders of a constant 80%/20% split (or maybe 70%/30%) of market share that favors c-Si over thin-film PV. "There's so much interest in thin-film technologies in general because they have dramatically simpler manufacturing steps and use much less material when making a module compared with c-Si," explained O'[Brien].
• Some companies produce panels at a cost of $0.70/W by the end of 2010

Prometheus Institute Study: Solar Power to Reach Grid Parity in U.S. in 2015[edit | edit source]

Michael Graham Richard, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20110821134134/http://www.treehugger.com:80/files/2009/07/solar-power-to-reach-grid-parity-2015-usa.php Prometheus Institute Study: Solar Power to Reach Grid Parity in U.S. in 2015, treehugger.com, Science & Technology (solar), 07.14.09^[3][4]

• REPORT: Clint Wilder, 2008. "Utility Solar Assessment (USA) Study": http://web.archive.org/web/20161120092153/http://cleanedge.com/reports/reports-solarUSA2008.php
• Installed solar PV prices are projected to decline from an average $5.50-$7.00 peak watt (15-32 cents kWh) today to $3.02-$3.82 peak watt (8-18 cents kWh) in 2015 to $1.43-$1.82 peak watt (4-8 cents kWh) by 2025

A Countdown towards Solar Power at Grid Parity:Policy Analysis Based on the Evolution of Price-Performance[edit | edit source]

Nitin R. Jogleka, Eric S. Graber-Lopez, 2008.A Countdown towards Solar Power at Grid Parity:Policy Analysis Based on the Evolution of Price-Performance,in format for Proceedings of the 2008 ISDSI International Conference,18 pages^[5]

• simulation model that has been set up to examines the behavioral mode associated with the growth of the announced solar capacity generation and allied LMP issues in California
• Figure 7: Sensitivity Study – Effect of Learning Rates on Grid Parity
• Figure 8: Sensitivity Study – Effect of Transmission Cost on the Grid Parity
• Brown,S. and I. Rowlands 2009, Nodal pricing in Ontario, Canada: Implications for solar PV electricity. Renewable Energy 34 (1): 170-178
• Cleanedge 2008, Utility Solar Asessment (USA) Study Reaching Ten Percent Solar by 2025, JUNE , www.cleanedge.com.
• Ford, A. 2005. Simulating the Impact of a Carbon Market on the Electricity System in the Western USA, Inter. Conf. of the System Dynamics Society, Neijmegen.

The True Cost of Solar Power[edit | edit source]

Song, Joonki, Ryan Boas, Chris Bolman, Mark Farber, Hilary Flynn, Martin Meyers, and Michael Rogol. 2008. True Cost of Solar Power: Race to $1/W. Photon Consulting LLC..^[6]

• Detailed benchmarks of cost structures for solar companies through 2012 (Report cost $1950 USD)
• Average cost if <$2/W for models and <$5/W for systems (race is to $1/W)...LCOE is <$0.25/kWh without incentives in sunnier places
• At $1/W module and $1/W BOS, LCOE is <$0.10/kWh by 2012 is sunnier places

Progress Report on Ontario's Solar Initiatives [Canada][edit | edit source]

JoAnne Butler, VP of Electricity Resources, OPA. 2008.[https://ozone.scholarsportal.info/bitstream/1873/13484/1/288589.pdf Progress Report on Ontario's Solar Initiatives], Ontario Power Authority,December 9, 2008 ^[7]

• CanSIA's roadmap for development of solar in Ontario -- twoprogram approach, target for grid parity 2016-2020

Coming Soon: Solar Power Grid Parity [Canada] =[edit | edit source]

Warren Brazier,2008.Coming Soon: Solar Power Grid Parity,British Columbia Renewable Energy Blog - MegaWatt, December 14, 2008,^[8]

• "The Canadian Solar Industries Association Solar Conference 2008 held last week in Toronto, was told by Navigant Consulting that utility-scale solar photovoltaic projects could reach "grid parity" without subsidies between 2020 and 2023 if fossil fuel prices increase as expected and if, under an emissions trading regime, carbon dioxide is priced at $70 per tonne."

Thin Film PV: The Pathway to Grid Parity[edit | edit source]

B. Buller and D. Eaglesham, "Thin Film PV: The Pathway to Grid Parity," in Optics and Photonics for Advanced Energy Technology, OSA Technical Digest (CD) (Optical Society of America, 2009), paper ThD1.http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?URI=Energy-2009-ThD1[4]^[9]

• LCOE solar graph, lower LCOE with PPA (Power Purchase Agreement) with ITC (Investment Tax Credit) & optimized capital versus simplified LCOE ($0.08 $/kWh if system cost is $2.5/W)
• thin films cheaper so can approach parity faster
• FSLR is driving towards grid parity at $2.50/W (System)and $0.08/kWh before 2012

Solar power edges towards boom time.[edit | edit source]

Wynn, Gerard. 2007. Solar power edges towards boom time. Reuters, October 19. http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSL1878986220071019.^[10]

• General Electric's Chief Engineer predicts grid parity without subsidies in sunny parts of the United States by around 2015. Other companies predict an earlier date
• costs are dropping by around 5 percent a year and "grid parity," without subsidies, is already a reality in parts of California.

Gaining on the grid.[edit | edit source]

Brown, Malcolm. 2007. Gaining on the grid. BP Global - Reports and publications, Issue 19. August, pp14-18.^[11]

• Graph of solar grid parity for 2015 in the U.S.(in constant 2005 dollars)
• "The US Department of Energy estimates that if the 2015 goal is met it should involve between five and ten gigawatts of new electricity generating capacity (enough to power one to two million homes), and avoid ten million tonnes of CO2 emissions. It should also create 30,000 new jobs in the solar industry. "
• In the USA, parity with the electricity grid at peak charging rates has already been achieved in northern California and Hawaii (20cents/kWh)

Going for grid parity.[edit | edit source]

Brown, Malcolm. 2005. Going for grid parity. BP Global - Reports and publications, Issue 12, April. pp 6-10.^[12]

• the global solar business seeks achieving grid parity – reducing the cost of solar energy to be competitive with conventional grid-supplied electricity.
• "Grid parity will be achieved first in those areas of the world that have a combination of abundant sunshine and comparatively high grid electricity prices, places like California and Japan. Japan is already on the brink of grid parity, having one of the highest retail electricity prices in the world and good sunlight. It also has a government that has been prepared to encourage the use of solar power with incentives."
• cell efficiencies are achieving upwards of 15-18% depending upon the technology

Where Renewables Stack Up: Comparative Chart on Levelized Cost of Energy and the "Value" of Clean Energy

Life Span of Solar PV[edit | edit source]

Lifespan and Reliability of Solar Photovoltaics - Literature Review

In general, manufacturer warranties cover the power output of Solar PV panels at roughly 20 to 25 years, and so the life is usually expected for 20 - 25 years [5]. This sections covers the literature for the reasonable life span of Solar PV panels. There are several types of panels that will be considered.

Searches:

• Life expectancy of solar PV/ Solar panels
• Lifespan of solar PV
• Zweibel solar lifespan

Types of Solar Materials

• Crystalline silicon
• Thin film – Amorphous Silicon
• Thin film – Indium Diselenide
• CIGS
• CdTe

Solar Technologies

• Flat Plate
• High Efficiency Multi Junction – IHCPV
• BIPV
• Concentrating
• Tracking vs Fixed
• -----

*General[edit | edit source]

Nick Bosco. (S. Kurtz) 2010.Reliability Concerns Associated with PV Technologies. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, ^[13]

• This document is a non-comprehensive summary of known reliability concerns for PV technologies. It has 3 parts:

1. List of reliability concerns with corresponding references 2. Reference list 3. Prioritization of failures

• Several technologies listed

Anon. 2009.Solar panel costs 'set to fall' ,BBC, November 30, sec. Science & Environment.^[14]

• "EU Energy Institute have found that 90 percent of solar panels last for 30 years or longer, a considerable leap from the 20 years generally recognized by banks and lenders."
• Dr Ossenbrink says 40-year panels will be on the market soon.

Dr. Heinz Ossenbrink presents 22nd EU PVSEC Technical Highlights - cannot find report?

Vasilis Fthenakis, Sustainability of photovoltaics: The case for thin-film solar cells, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 13, Issue 9, December 2009, Pages 2746-2750,^[15]

Abstract: To ensure photovoltaics become a major sustainable player in a competitive power-generation market, they must provide abundant, affordable electricity, with environmental impacts drastically lower than those from conventional power generation. The recent reduction in the cost of 2nd generation thin-film PV is remarkable, meeting the production milestone of $1 per watt in the fourth quarter of 2008. This achievement holds great promise for the future. However, the questions remaining are whether the expense of PV modules can be lowered further, and if there are resource- and environmental-impact constraints to growth. I examine the potential of thin-films in a prospective life-cycle analysis, focusing on direct costs, resource availability, and environmental impacts. These three aspects are closely related; developing thinner solar cells and recycling spent modules will become increasingly important in resolving cost, resource, and environmental constraints to large scales of sustainable growth.

Allen Zielnik, Atlas Material Testing, 2009. PV Durability and Reliability Issues,Photovoltaics World Magazine, Nov/Dec 2009 - Volume 1 Issue 5,December 3, 2009^[16]

• While there are initial PV qualification tests, such as the IEC and UL requirements, among others, they are neither intended to, nor capable of, predicting long-term performance. As a result, there has been an evolution in the application of accelerated life testing (ALT) and accelerated environmental testing (AET) to the service life prediction (SLP) of PV modules and systems.
• no test program can predict with 100% certainty that a module will properly perform in an environment for 25+ years (except for real-time 25 year testing, of course)

Osterwald, C. R., and T. J. McMahon. 2009. History of accelerated and qualification testing of terrestrial photovoltaic modules: A literature review. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications 17, no. 1: 11-33.^[17]

• An important facet of this subject is the standard module test sequences that have been adopted by national and international standards organizations, especially those of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The intent and history of these qualification tests, provided in this review, shows that standard module qualification test results cannot be used to obtain or infer a product lifetime. Closely related subjects also discussed include: other limitations of qualification testing, definitions of module lifetime, module product certification, and accelerated life testing.

T. McMahon, G. Jorgensen, R. Hulstrom,2000 "Module 30 Year Life: What Does it Mean and Is It Predictable/Achievable?," National Renewable Energy Laboratory,Conference: National Center for Photovoltaics Program Review, Denver, CO (US), 04/17/2000--04/19/2000. 2000 Apr 11^[18]

• The authors define what they mean by a 30-year module life and the testing protocol that they believe is involved in achieving such a prediction. However, they do not believe that a universal test (or series of tests) will allow for such a prediction to be made. They can test for a lot of things, but they believe it is impossible to provide a 30-year certification for any PV module submitted for test. They explain their belief in this paper.
• Reprinted in: T. McMahon, G. Jorgensen, R. Hulstrom, "Module 30 Year Life: What Does it Mean and Is It Predictable/Achievable?," National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Reliability Physics Symposium, 2008 (IRPS 2008); IEEE Inter., April 27, 2008-May 1, 2008 pp.: 172–177.

*Polycrystalline Silicon[edit | edit source]

Martin Holladay, Testing a Thirty-Year-Old Photovoltaic Module-It's time to hook up my oldest solar panel to a multimeter ,May, 21, 2010, Green Building Advisor.com,[6]

• a panel from 1979 (over 30 years old)still performs respectfully with old technology. Imagine how long newer technologies will last

***Artur Skoczek, Tony Sample and Ewan D. Dunlop, The Results of Performance Measurements of Field-aged Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules, Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, Volume 17 Issue 4, 2009, Pages 227 - 240^[19]

Abstract This paper presents the results of electrical performance measurements of 204 crystalline silicon-wafer based photovoltaic modules following long-term continuous outdoor exposure. The modules comprise a set of 53 module types originating from 20 different producers, all of which were originally characterized at the European Solar Test Installation (ESTI), over the period 1982-1986. The modules represent diverse generations of PV technologies, different encapsulation and substrate materials. The modules electrical performance was determined according to the standards IEC 60891 and the IEC 60904 series, electrical insulation tests were performed according to the recent IEC 61215 edition 2. Many manufacturers currently give a double power warranty for their products, typically 90% of the initial maximum power after 10 years and 80% of the original maximum power after 25 years. Applying the same criteria (taking into account modules electrical performance only and assuming 2·5% measurement uncertainty of a testing lab) only 17·6% of modules failed (35 modules out of 204 tested). Remarkably even if we consider the initial warranty period i.e. 10% of Pmax after 10 years, more than 65·7% of modules exposed for 20 years exceed this criteria. The definition of life time is a difficult task as there does not yet appear to be a fixed catastrophic failure point in module ageing but more of a gradual degradation. Therefore, if a system continues to produce energy which satisfies the user need it has not yet reached its end of life. If we consider this level arbitrarily to be the 80% of initial power then all indications from the measurements and observations made in this paper are that the useful lifetime of solar modules is not limited to the commonly assumed 20 year. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

• Very detailed study

J. Wohlgemuth, "Reliability of PV Systems, Reliability of Photovoltaic Cells, Modules, Components and Systems," edited by Neelkanth G. Dhere, Proc. of SPIE ,Vol. 7048, 704802-1, (2008).^[20]

According to John Wohlgemuth (BP Solar), "Today, BP Solar offers a 25-year warranty on most of its crystalline silicon PV modules…while the modules have to last for 25 years of outdoor exposure, we cannot wait 25 years to see how they perform… no BP/Solarex module has been in the field longer than ten years. Even the oldest 20-year warranty modules have only been in the field 15 years."

• "Examples of accelerated stress tests of use for PV include:
• Thermal cycling;
• Humidity-freeze;
• Damp heat;
• Mechanical load both static and dynamic, and
• Ultraviolet exposure"

Ewan D. Dunlop and David Halt, 2005."The Performance of Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Solar Modules after 22 Years of Continuous Outdoor Exposure", PROGRESS IN PHOTOVOLTAICS: RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS, DOI: 10.1002/pip.627

• the majority of modules exceeding the level of 92% of Pmax after 20 year, the actual lifetime of these products is significantly more than 20 years.
• Figure 1. Relative power degradation of silicone-encapsulated PV modules after 22 years

Dunlop, E.D.; Halton, D.; Ossenbrink, H.A.;20 years of life and more: where is the end of life of a PV module?, Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2005. Conference Record of the Thirty-first IEEE Proceedings 2005 , Page(s): 1593 - 1596.^[21]

• no visible evidence that degradation rate is increasing with time
• no defined "end of life" if assume constant continuous degradation, such that life time is well beyond 20 years

John H. Wohlgemuth, 2003.Long Term Photovoltaic Module Reliability,NCPV and Solar Program Review Meeting 2003, NREL/CD-520-33586 pp 179-183.^[22]

Abstract:The reliability of crystalline silicon PV modules has improved dramatically over the years. Module warranties of 25 years are now common. Extension of the warranties to 25 years was based on excellent field results for modules with 10 year warranties and on extensive accelerated testing. Since none of the 25 year warranty modules have been in the field that long, we do not know how or when they will eventually fail. It is important for the PV industry to know this, because it impacts the ultimate useful life of our PV systems, it provides critical input for future improvements in module reliability and it provides important data on the long term wear out or failure of today's crystalline silicon PV modules.

• Failure modes covered

Antonella Realini, 2003. "MTBF - PVm, Mean Time Before Failure of Photovoltaic modules",Final report BBW 99.0579, June 2003,58 pages^[23]

• Extensive MTBF project under Solarec. Very detailed study.
• Results after 20 year study (indoor)

▪ 59% of the modules exhibited a decrease lower than -10% to the stated nominal power ▪ 35% of modules exhibited a decrease between -10% and -20% ▪ only the 6% of modules showed a decrease greater than -20%.

• The perspective to produce commercial modules with lifetimes of 30 years Italic textor more is so realizable, trying to avoid the degradation mechanisms which could compromise modules efficiency and lifetime (in particular encapsulant delamination and hot-spot formation).

Expectancy of Solar Panels]

• Andy Black, one of the leading solar financial analysis experts and instructor, recently published his report on the lifespan of solar panels. His analysis showed that the first solar panels manufactured about 40 years ago are still creating power at about 80% of their original power. From that study combined with his other analysis, he concluded that most solar panels will lose about a half percent a year in efficiency.

*Mono-crystalline Silicon

*Other Resources[edit | edit source]

Accelerated testing still a challenge

:

Energetics Incorporated, 2010. Preliminary Situation Analysis: Advances in Photovoltaic Technologies, Workshop on Grand Challenges for Advances in Photovoltaic Technologies and Measurements, Denver, Colorado, May 11-12, 2010.

• Standards, market challenges, measurement issues, contacts fo various PV researchers

U.S. Department of Energy, Accelerated Aging Testing and Reliability in Photovoltaics Workshop II, Summary Report, April 1 & 2, 2008.

European Commission Joint Research Centre (EU JRC), 2005,Workshop Proceedings of the "1st International Workshop Thin Films in the Photovoltaic Industry" 10/11 November 2005,JRC Scientific and Technical Reports (EUR collection)

• The various thin film technologies (TF) have the highest cost reduction potential of all PV technologies in middle and long term. Equally, competitive technologies are amorphous/microcrystalline Silicon, CdTe and the material family of Cu (In,Ga)(Se,S)2. thin films.
• summary of presentations, lifetime prediction still a challenge

European Commission Joint Research Centre (EU JRC), 2009,PV Status Report 2009 - Research, Solar Cell Production and Market Implementation of Photovoltaics,JRC Scientific and Technical Reports (EUR collection)[7]

• The current solar cell technologies are well established and provide a reliable product, with sufficient efficiency and energy output for at least 25 years of lifetime.
• The average lifetime of a residential home is 25 to 35 years and corresponds well with the lifetime of solar modules.
• feed-in tariffs and other incentives covered
• One of the research issues is ensuring module lifetime >35years
• PV System Assessment in Performance - Towards Maximun Output

General LCOE Resources[edit | edit source]

• PV exchange [8] - Prices
• PV Insight [9] Weekly prices of Solar PV modules and cells

United States of America (US)[edit | edit source]

• NREL Market Analysis Models and Tools

RETFinance is a levelized cost-of-energy model, which simulates a detailed 20-year nominal dollar cash flow for renewable energy projects power projects including project earnings, cash flows, and debt payment to calculate a project's levelized cost-of-electricity, after-tax nominal Internal Rate of Return, and annual Debt-Service-Coverage-Ratios.

• NREL Solar Advisor Model (SAM)

"SAM incorporates the best available models to allow analysis of the impact of changes to the physical system on the overall economics (including the levelized cost of energy)." [10]

• Simple Cost of Energy Calculator
• Solar Energy Technologies Program

Canada[edit | edit source]

• http://www.powerauthority.on.ca/Storage/49/4442_E-2-2__Att_1.pdf
• How Canadian Electricity Markets Work
• Sector Sustainability Tables
• Chapter 4: Electricity, generation, costs, reliability
• Case Study of different energy in Canada
• List of Agencies:
• National Energy Board (NEB), http://www.neb-one.gc.ca/clf-nsi/rcmmn/hm-eng.html
• Natural Resources Canada (NRCAN), http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/com/index-eng.php
• Canadian Energy Research Institute,http://www.ceri.ca/ (CERI)
• CanMEt:
• Sophie Pelland, Daniel W. McKenney, Yves Poissant, Robert Morris, Kevin Lawrence, Kathy Campbell and Pia Papadopol, 2006,The Development of PV Resource Maps for Canada,31st Annual Conference of the Solar Energy Society of Canada (SESCI). Aug. 20-24th 2006, Montréal Canada, 8 pages
• Project Financial Evaluation
• RETScreen—Renewable Energy Technology Screen

www.retscreen.net/ Developed by Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), and available for free, this software can be used to evaluate the annual energy production, costs and financial viability of wind energy, small hydro, photovoltaics, solar air heating, biomass heating, solar water heating, passive solar heating and ground source heat pumps.

• Economic planning for commercial renewable energy projects- fact sheet

Subsidies for fossil fuel[edit | edit source]

• Coady, D., Parry, I., Sears, L., & Shang, B. (2015). How Large Are Global Energy Subsidies?. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2015/wp15105.pdf - IMF review of fossil fuel subsidies

Citation List[edit | edit source]

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