Shotcrete solar racking literature review

Shotcrete Solar Racking

This literature review covers the concept of using shotcrete as a PV racking material it supports the following publication:

Why Shotcrete supports

Residential, Commercial, and Utility-Scale Photovoltaic (PV) System Prices in the United States: Current Drivers and Cost-Reduction Opportunities

https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/53347.pdf

Drop in PV module prices but high installation, component, and system cost
Market price vs bottom-up analysis are very different
Installation costs are reason for having low PV cost but low application

Shotcrete

Shotcrete: Methods and Compositions

Dr. Anwar Khitab Shotcrete: methods and Compositions

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281443236_Shotcrete_Methods_and_Compositions

Introduction to shotcrete technology and its application methods
Dry mix applied at rate of 1-2 yards^3 /hr and wet mix at a rate of 7-8 yards^3 /hr
Proper drainage and rock bolts are essential on slopes
Fibers are the best option for reinforcement

Types of shotcrete and its applications

https://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/shotcrete/C2-Types.pdf

Helps in identifying which shotcrete methods to be used for different applications
Slope and surface protection and thin sections over large areas are covered
Wet mix is more frost resistant and seals water leaks
Fiber reinforcement is essential

Shotcrete application for different conditions

https://www.rocscience.com/assets/resources/learning/hoek/Practical-Rock-Engineering-Chapter-15-Shotcrete-Support. https://www.shotcrete.org/media/Archive/2002Sum_Ballou.pdf.

Helps in identifying which shotcrete methods to be used for different applications.
Water removal options: weep holes, geocomposite drainage board, and drains horizontal
Added silica fumes improve adhesion but reduce strength

Comparative evaluation of steel mesh, steel fibre and high-performance polypropylene fibre reinforced shotcrete

O Cengiz L Turanli "Comparative evaluation of steel mesh, steel fibre and high-performance polypropylene fibre reinforced shotcrete in panel test" Cement and Concrete Research Volume 34, Issue 8, August 2004, Pages 1357-1364

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000888460400002X

Abstract In this study, experimental investigations were performed on steel mesh (SM), steel fibre (SF) and high-performance polypropylene fibre (HPPF) reinforced shotcrete (HPPFRS) panels to evaluate performance characteristics such as toughness, flexural ductility, energy absorption and load capacity. The panel tests, in accordance with European specification for sprayed concrete (EFNARC), were made on 18 prismatic specimens having the same mix designs and were cured for 28 days but reinforced with various fibres. In addition, the rebound characteristics of these mixes were determined to compare the actual in situ fibre contents.

Test results show that all reinforcements, including HPPFs that are low-modulus fibres, greatly improved the flexural ductility, toughness, and load-carrying capacity of the brittle matrix. It was seen that there was a positive synergy effect between steel and polypropylene fibre in hybrid fibre usage from a performance point of view. According to results, it can be concluded that a hybrid polypropylene-SF can be used alternatively instead of SM and monosteel fibre as a reinforcement in shotcrete applications to get better efficiency in mechanical properties of composite.

compares which type of Shotcrete application is better
most common options provide ample strength for this type of design

Projects using Shotcrete technology

http://web.archive.org/web/20160909114950/http://www.shotcrete.org:80/media/Archive/2014Win_Underground.pdf http://web.archive.org/web/20160705055416/http://shotcrete.org:80/media/Archive/2014Win_Architecture.pdf http://web.archive.org/web/20160804094059/http://shotcrete.org:80/media/Archive/2014Win_PoolRec.pdf http://web.archive.org/web/20160705055638/http://shotcrete.org:80/media/Archive/2014Win_Infrastructure.pdf http://web.archive.org/web/20160909114545/http://www.shotcrete.org:80/media/Archive/2014Win_International.pdf

Helps in understanding Shotcrete technology better and the difficulties that can occur while performing.
In slope stabilization it proven to be cost effective and sustainable using a soil nail wall system.
Pools are an example of precision and water-curing capabilities
Used to stabilize drilling operations

Mechanism of wet shotcrete interacting with rock in support systems

LI Li, WU Ai-xiang, WANG Yi-ming, HAN Bin, WANG Hong-jiang, WANG Chun-lai "Mechanism of wet shotcrete interacting with rock in support systems"

Abstract: In order to have a good understanding of the behavior of wet shotcrete as a support element interacting with the rock mass, mechanism of wet shotcrete interacting with rock in support systems was analyzed through theoretical, numerical study and analytical analysis. A new model of distribution of rock stress state after wet shotcrete was applied, which includes shotcrete layer, composite layer, strengthening layer, plastic layer and elastic layer, and a full illustration of the rock mass stress state was given after shotcrete interacting with rock mass. At the same time, numerical analysis with FLAC gives a stress distribution along the monitor line, respectively, at the sidewall and roof of the tunnel. The displacement obviously decreases with the depth of rock, the tangential stress for tunnel supported by shotcrete is lower than that without shotcrete, and radial stress for tunnel supported by shotcrete is higher than that without shotcrete. It has been demonstrated by AIRY’S stress function, which gives a reasonable solution. Finally, the application of wet shotcrete in Jinfeng Gold Mine shows that the displacement of tunnel decreases obviously in sidewall and roof.

Fibre reinforced shotcrete

DESIGN OF FIBRE REINFORCED SHOTCRETE LININGS WITH MACRO-SYNTHETIC FIBRES

E. S. Bernard "DESIGN OF FIBRE REINFORCED SHOTCRETE LININGS WITH MACRO-SYNTHETIC FIBRES" https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241804218_DESIGN_OF_FIBRE_REINFORCED_SHOTCRETE_LININGS_WITH_MACRO-SYNTHETIC_FIBRES

ABSTRACT Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete (FRS) reinforced with macro-synthetic fibres has now been used to stabilize ground in underground mines and tunnels, and for slope stabilization, for over 10 years. Experience has demonstrated that macro-synthetic fibres are capable of exhibiting very high levels of performance and are a highly effective form of reinforcement for both temporary and permanent ground support. Engineering data also exists showing that macro-synthetic fibres excel with regard to corrosion resistance and embrittlement in shotcrete, and are very effective in ground subject to high deformation. Despite this, the design of FRS linings using this type of reinforcement lags behind that of linings incorporating alternative forms of reinforcement. There is a lack of appreciation within the engineering construction community that methods of design exist for this material and that these have been proven satisfactory. This paper will attempt to summarize generic approaches to the design of temporary and permanent ground support based on macro-synthetic FRS.

Can know about fibre reinforced shotcrete strength
Fiber reinforcement effects corrosion, post crack energy absorption, post fire accacity, and rigidity.
Permanent ground support on soft vs firm ground

Embrittlement of fiber-reinforced shotcrete

Erik Bernard Embrittlement of fiber-reinforced shotcrete https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284099980_Embrittlement_of_fiber-reinforced_shotcrete

To know about the environmental effects on shotcrete
Long term testing
Loss of ductility is esential to be aware of
Macro-synthetic fibers absorb energy best with age

Age-dependent changes in post-crack performance of fibre reinforced shotcrete linings

Erik StefanBernard "Age-dependent changes in post-crack performance of fibre reinforced shotcrete linings" https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0886779815000899

Abstract It is commonly assumed that when a mix achieves satisfactory performance in Quality Control tests at 28 days this result will translate into satisfactory performance throughout the design life of the corresponding concrete structure. While this is generally true of the compressive strength of concrete it is not necessarily true for other parameters. The post-crack performance of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) differs from that of conventionally reinforced concrete in that the post-crack performance of fibres is related in a complex manner to the characteristics of the concrete matrix. Age-dependent changes in the characteristics of the concrete matrix can effect changes in the post-crack behaviour of fibres. The present investigation has examined how the post-crack energy absorption of fibre reinforced shotcrete (FRS) changes with aging and has found that some types of fibre exhibit dramatically different performance characteristics at late age compared to that displayed at 28 days. This change can have significant consequences for the design of ground support based on fibre reinforced shotcrete. Tunnel linings required to resist sustained ground stresses, or which may be subject to deformation associated with seismicity or ground movement at later ages, should be designed with consideration of a possible long-term loss of ductility exhibited by some types of fibre reinforced shotcrete.

To know the effect of age on the shotcrete
Ductility standard of 400 J energy absorption at 40 mm deflection
Ground movement such as freezing requires adequate ductility to avoid collapse

FIBER REINFORCED WET-MIX SHOTCRETE UNDER IMPACT

y P. Gupta, N. Banthia, and C. Yan "FIBER REINFORCED WET-MIX SHOTCRETE UNDER IMPACT" https://ascelibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.1061/%28ASCE%290899-1561%282000%2912%3A1%2881%29

ABSTRACT: As a result of excavation blasting, traffic, sudden ground movements, rock bursts, and seismic activity, shotcrete is often subjected to impact and other dynamic loads. Limited data exist, however, with regard to the resistance of shotcrete to such dynamic loads. Impact resistance of wet-mix shotcrete reinforced with 10 different types of fibers was investigated using instrumented drop weight impact tests. A direct comparison was made with the quasi-static response. Both beam and plate specimens were tested and the data were correlated. Fiber reinforcement was found to be highly effective in improving the fracture energy absorption and toughness under impact loading, but the improvements under impact loading were found to be substantially different than those seen in quasi-static tests, and were also highly dependent on the type of fiber used. When beams and plates were compared, the relative improvements between fiber types were found not necessarily in agreement.

To know why Fibre reinforced wet mix shotcrete is better
Dynamic load testing and loading axis for surface coating
Synthetic fibers advised
Fiber recommendation varies depending on static or dynamic load. Static loads improve more greatly from fiber addition.

Accelerating admixtures for shotcrete

Luiz Roberto Prudêncio Jr. "Accelerating admixtures for shotcrete" https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0958946598800073

Abstract A variety of additives and admixtures are added to shotcrete to improve strength, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, freezing/thawing and abrasion resistance characteristics, and reduce rebound. Accelerators are being used increasingly in both dry- and wetprocess applications. Accelerators are common in the dry process to increase early strength and reduce dust and rebound and in the wet process are used to achieve rapid set and early strength. The choice of a particular accelerator and its dosage is largely governed by the setting time required for the shotcrete application. Various watersoluble salts of the alkali metals can be used to accelerate the setting of cement. Most of the set accelerators used today are based on alkali aluminates in combination with carbonates and hydroxides and produced in both liquid and powder form. The performance of these accelerators depends on the cement chemical composition and fineness, and the presence of mineral additions such as flyash, and blastfurnace slag. This performance is generally evaluated using setting tests on cement/ accelerator pastes despite the belief of some researchers that this procedure can produce misleading results. This paper describes the main accelerators used in shotcrete and presents some results of field tests performed on shocrete panels evaluating the behavior of different accelerators. Particular attention is given to a new liquid alkalifree shotcrete accelerator that showed a very interesting behavior at very early ages and no strength loss at later ages. The early strengths were evaluated using non-destructive tests (Constant Depth Penetrometer and Constant Energy Penetrometer).

May be used for shotcrete knowledge but not necessary
Accelerating admixtures reduce strength significantly and results are temperature dependant
Limited use to special applications

slope stabilization using soil nails: design assumptions and construction realities

Tan,Yean-chin and Chow Chee-Meng "slope stabilization using soil nails: design assumptions and construction realities" http://gnpgeo.com.my/download/publication/2004_11.pdf

May be useful if racking is to be done on on slope.
Soil nail placement is important for structural integrity but location dependant

Detachment of shotcrete lining due to long terminteraction with ground water

Dr. Michael Romer "Detachment of shotcrete lining due to long term interaction with ground water" https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.142959!/file/10.pdf

useful if shotcrete solar racking is done in a location where land is wet.
Main idea of leaching can pertain to erosion and degradation due to rain and dirt buildup

Soil and rock slope stabilization using fiber-reinforced shotcrete in North America

Mike Ballou and Matt Niermann"Soil and rock stabilization using shotcrete in north america" https://www.shotcrete.org/media/Archive/2002Sum_Ballou.pdf

useful for shotcrete application at any location

Thermal properties of lightweight dry-mix shotcrete containing expanded perlite aggregate

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0958946514000936

Thermal diffusivity and mechanical performance assessed
The thermal diffusivity and conductivity of the shotcrete was able to be dropped without losing performance up to 75% sand additive

Optical Design and Characterization of Solar Concentrators for Photovoltaics

J. Nilsson, "Optical Design and Characterization of Solar Concentrators for Photovoltaics"

optics of concentrators
optical efficiency of the concentrators
Models to estimate output
Assess azimuth angle, incomplete illumination, adjustable inclination, and dip at noon
Better efficiency in winter due to reduced change in angle
Reflectors improve efficiency particularly in morning and evening

Effects of low concentration planer concentrators on array-scale solar photovoltaic systems performance

Open circuit voltage and short circuit current
Greater efficiency in winter
Monthly tilt angle adjustment

Photovoltaic system performance enhancement with non-tracking planar concentrators: Experimental results and BDRF based modelling

https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7293585

Non-tracking is more affordable and improves output by 35-45%
In depth angle assessment

Model of Loss Mechanisms for Low Optical Concentration on Solar Photovoltaic Arrays with Planar Reflectors

Rob Andrews, Nabeil Alazzam, and Joshua M. Pearce, “Model of Loss Mechanisms for Low Optical Concentration on Solar Photovoltaic Arrays with Planar Reflectors”, 40th American Solar Energy Society National Solar Conference Proceedings, pp. 446-453 (2011).

Losses involved in using flat plate concentrator theoretically.

Design Procedure of V-trough Cavities for Photovoltaic Systems

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/%28SICI%291099-159X%28199801/02%296%3A1%3C43%3A%3AAID-PIP200%3E3.0.CO%3B2-P

Experimentally shows use of concentrator increases energy output.
Trough angle and concentration ratio finite ranges and plateau maximization
Cost analysis

OPERATION OF STANDARD PV MODULES IN V-TROUGH CONCENTRATORS

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276253544_Operation_of_standard_PV_modules_in_V-trough_concentrators

Overview of double reflectors to reduce cost and increase efficiency
Wider trophs reduce error and better circulation
Synthesis of which factors affect angle calculations and efficiencies

PERFORMANCE OF A V-TROUGH PHOTOVOLTAIC/THERMAL CONCENTRATOR

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/56364165.pdf

Aluminum instead of stainless steel are more cost effective, made equally durable, but need to improve thermal effects
V trough is feasible but needs cooling

Concentrating solar module with horizontal reflectors

Toshio Matsushima, Tatsuyuki Setaka, SeiichiMuroyama https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927024802001563

Helpful in constructing a Solar module with concentrators
Sun altitude analysis
Concentrating module at 20 degrees to horizontal and 90 degrees to solar panel with high reflector rating
Lesser angles create greater efficiencies in winter months

The enhancement of energy gain of solar collectors and photovoltaic panels by the reflection of solar beams

M.D.J Pucarab, A.R Despicb https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544201000810

Can be used for optimal positioning of concentrators

Models to estimate output

Assess azimuth angle, incomplete illumination, adjustable inclination, and dip at noon
Better efficiency in winter due to reduced change in angle
Reflectors improve efficiency particularly in morning and evening

Performance evaluation of photovoltaic modules at diﬀerent tilt angles and orientations

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890403003571

Tilt angle range calculations with southern orientation

Comparative study of PV modules with and without a tilted plane reflector

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890400001394

Open circuit voltage and short circuit current
Greater efficiency in winter
Monthly tilt angle adjustment

Optimization of operational and design parameters of plane reflector-tilted flat plate solar collector systems

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544200000037

H.M.S. Hussein, G.E. Ahmad, H.H. El-Ghetany

Useful in construction of solar modules along with concentrators, and for there positioning

Booster ReØectors for PVModules in Sweden

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/1099-159X%28200005/06%298%3A3%3C279%3A%3AAID-PIP316%3E3.0.CO%3B2-%23

Ueful in designing the module
30% performance increase with 10% cost increase
0.4-0.5% reduction in efficiency per degree C
Reduce thermal effect by increasing mass
Angle analysis
Low resistance is key to performance with boosters
Parallel vs series analysis

Flow and heat transfer in the air gap behind photovoltaic panels

https://www.sciencedirect.com/search/advanced?docId=10.1016/S1364-0321(98)00005-7

Useful in temperature reducing of the panels.
0.4-0.6% reduction in efficiency per degree C therefore 20*change = 0.6-1% difference in efficiency
Turbulent and laminar flow observed
Reducing emissivity of the rebound surface decreases flow through the gap, therefore a high emissivity is recommended
Heat is radiated to back surface then heats the air by convection

A review of solar photovoltaic systems cooling technologies

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317155834_A_review_of_solar_photovoltaic_systems_cooling_technologies

Assess 9 heat removal techniques with many pros and cons
Many use and waste water
Transparent cooling and hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal system

V-TROUGH CONCENTRATOR ON A PHOTOVOLTAIC FULL TRACKING SYSTEM IN A HOT DESERT CLIMATE

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/096014819500055O

Separation angle and concentration ratio to increase efficiency and reduce cost
Rays: direct, incident, diffused
open voltage and closed current

PERFORMANCE OF A V-TROUGH PHOTOVOLTAIC/THERMAL CONCENTRATOR

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X13005057

Water cooled to increase heat transfer on back surface of PV
Suggested concentrator: mirror finished stainless steel
Equations that take into account reflectance
Latitude is equal to absorber mount angle

A Combined Optical, Thermal and Electrical Performance Study of a V-Trough PV System—Experimental and Analytical Investigations

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275257164_A_Combined_Optical_Thermal_and_Electrical_Performance_Study_of_a_V-Trough_PV_System-Experimental_and_Analytical_Investigations

Reduce temperatures with low concentration and low cost reflectors

Snow Removal

An Experimental investigation of snow removal from photovoltaic solar panels by electrical heating

https://services.lib.mtu.edu:2072/science/article/pii/S0038092X18306789?via%3Dihub

Thermal snow removal from electrical heater and reverse current
Frameless panels advised
Meltwater refreeze warning and upper/lower half frame melt addressed
Tilt angel and back insulation

Modified vacuum tubes for overheating limitation of solar collectors: A dynamic modeling approach

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0038092X18306832

Assess solutions for thermal overheating

Design and low energy ventilation solutions for atria in the tropics

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210670711000606

Uses dynamic thermal model (DTM)
Pressure mechanical ventilation explained

Drainage

Roof and rain gutter ice melt system and assembly

http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=9121179.PN.&OS=PN/9121179&RS=PN/9121179

Two heat cables: at edge and in gutter

New landscape-orientated PV system, offset seismic reinforcement, environmental education at NIT

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2003.9674902

Solar panel waterproofing function

Comparison of Pavement Drainage Systems

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0361198196151900101

Water leakage into pavement is bad
Evaluates the performance of cement drainage systems
Base layer is significant
Geocompostingand open grade remove water fastest
Reduce panel length and to reduce cracking

Enhanced Parking Lot Design for Stormwater Treatment

https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/40644(2002)12

Reduce runoff retaining on site
Swales and deep rooted vegetation greatly improve drainage
Assess nutrient and mineral transport

Paint as reflector

Investigating performance prediction and optimization of spectral solar reflectance of cool painted layers

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378778815301122

Isotropic scattering properties of paints
Particles, particle diameter, and paint thickness

Acrylic white paint of industrial sector for cool roofing application

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0038092X18304547

Solar reflectance, infrared emittance, albedo
Reduction in surface temperature
Degradation over time assessment

Cement based superhydrophobic coating with excellent robustness and solar reflective ability

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338578818_Cement_based_superhydrophobic_coating_with_excellent_robustness_and_solar_reflective_ability

Solar reflectance coating durability
Self cleaning with rainfall, mechanical durability, and temperature variance resistance
Optimum Ti02 30%
Comprehensive conclusion

Passive cooling techniques through reflective and radiative roofs in tropical houses in Southeast Asia: A literature review

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263514000399

Increasing urban population causes increasing energy consumption
Passive cooling: reduce heat, modify thermal gain, dissipate internal heat (due to reflectance and emittance)
Colored paint is effective because the majority of sun rays are visible light
Limitations in weathering, dirt, and visual obscurity
2 facing surfaces of different temps will have radiant flux

Estimating thermal performance of cool colored paints

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378778809001546

Cool pain of darker colors are effect but not as much as white
Pigment aspect of paint effects: gloss, hiding power, strength, permeability of film, and albedo
Complex inorganic colored pigments (CICPs) have greater reflectance and emissivity thus reducing infrared radiation
CICPs are very effective and have similar absorption but higher reflectance
Cost is up to $1/m^2 more but increases durability but has low cost/easy application

Row walkways

The science behind codes and standards for safe walkways

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003687015300508?via%3Dihub

Level and slip reinforced walkways

Effective Width of Pedestrian Corridors

https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733-947X%281984%29110%3A1%2880%29

Clearance from walls based off boundary conditions
5.5 -7.8 in clearance needed

OSHA 1910.73

https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/standardinterpretations/1982-03-09

Walkways must be at least 18in in width

Grading feasibility

Partially Automated Grading: Construction Process Innovation

https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(1988)114:1(19)

Fine grading necessary for construction on grades
Automation is time efficient, accurate, and consistent

Estimated Costs of Precision Land Grading With On-Farm Labor

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.623.3534&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Long term investment
Erosion control
$0.51/yard^3 to move soil

====Estimated Costs of Precision Grading Sugarcane Fields, 2017==== https://www.lsuagcenter.com/~/media/system/8/7/5/a/875a105c7fdf9bc07be233b1281d12ae/2017%20sugarcane%20precision%20grading%20cost%20reportpdf.pdf

Precise slope effects draining drastically
Cost analysis in cubic yards of dirt not square yards

Landform Grading and Slope Evolution

https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:10(729)

Long term slope stability and settling
Strategic runoff concentration
More complex shapes and grading do not cause significant increase in cost or feasibility but can be done with conventional equipment
Cost driven by volume of earth moved

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