{"id":79592,"key":"Shotcrete_solar_racking_literature_review","title":"Shotcrete solar racking literature review","latest":{"id":1211856,"timestamp":"2025-11-28T14:52:31Z"},"content_model":"wikitext","license":{"url":"https://www.appropedia.org/Appropedia:Copyrights","title":"CC-BY-SA-4.0"},"source":"{{MOST}}{{MOST literature review notice}}\n\n''' Shotcrete Solar Racking '''\n\nThis literature review covers the concept of using shotcrete as a PV racking material it supports the following publication:\n\n=== Why Shotcrete supports ===\n\n''' Residential, Commercial, and Utility-Scale Photovoltaic (PV) System Prices in the United States: Current Drivers and Cost-Reduction Opportunities '''\n\nhttps://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/53347.pdf\n\n* Drop in PV module prices but high installation, component, and system cost\n* Market price vs bottom-up analysis are very different\n* Installation costs are reason for having low PV cost but low application\n\n=== Shotcrete ===\n\n''' Shotcrete: Methods and Compositions '''\n\nDr. Anwar Khitab Shotcrete: methods and Compositions\n\nhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/281443236_Shotcrete_Methods_and_Compositions\n\n* Introduction to shotcrete technology and its application methods\n* Dry mix applied at rate of 1-2 yards^3 /hr and wet mix at a rate of 7-8 yards^3 /hr\n* Proper drainage and rock bolts are essential on slopes\n* Fibers are the best option for reinforcement\n\n''' Types of shotcrete and its applications '''\n\nhttps://www.engr.psu.edu/ce/courses/ce584/shotcrete/C2-Types.pdf\n\n* Helps in identifying which shotcrete methods to be used for different applications\n* Slope and surface protection and thin sections over large areas are covered\n* Wet mix is more frost resistant and seals water leaks\n* Fiber reinforcement is essential\n\n''' Shotcrete application for different conditions '''\n\nhttps://www.rocscience.com/assets/resources/learning/hoek/Practical-Rock-Engineering-Chapter-15-Shotcrete-Support.\nhttps://www.shotcrete.org/media/Archive/2002Sum_Ballou.pdf.\n\n* Helps in identifying which shotcrete methods to be used for different applications.\n* Water removal options: weep holes, geocomposite drainage board, and drains horizontal\n* Added silica fumes improve adhesion but reduce strength\n\n''' Comparative evaluation of steel mesh, steel fibre and high-performance polypropylene fibre reinforced shotcrete '''\n\nO Cengiz L Turanli \"Comparative evaluation of steel mesh, steel fibre and high-performance polypropylene fibre reinforced shotcrete in panel test\" Cement and Concrete Research Volume 34, Issue 8, August 2004, Pages 1357-1364\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000888460400002X\n\nAbstract\nIn this study, experimental investigations were performed on steel mesh (SM), steel fibre (SF) and high-performance polypropylene fibre (HPPF) reinforced shotcrete (HPPFRS) panels to evaluate performance characteristics such as toughness, flexural ductility, energy absorption and load capacity. The panel tests, in accordance with European specification for sprayed concrete (EFNARC), were made on 18 prismatic specimens having the same mix designs and were cured for 28 days but reinforced with various fibres. In addition, the rebound characteristics of these mixes were determined to compare the actual in situ fibre contents.\n\nTest results show that all reinforcements, including HPPFs that are low-modulus fibres, greatly improved the flexural ductility, toughness, and load-carrying capacity of the brittle matrix. It was seen that there was a positive synergy effect between steel and polypropylene fibre in hybrid fibre usage from a performance point of view. According to results, it can be concluded that a hybrid polypropylene-SF can be used alternatively instead of SM and monosteel fibre as a reinforcement in shotcrete applications to get better efficiency in mechanical properties of composite.\n\n* compares which type of Shotcrete application is better\n* most common options provide ample strength for this type of design\n\n''' Projects using Shotcrete technology '''\n\nhttp://web.archive.org/web/20160909114950/http://www.shotcrete.org:80/media/Archive/2014Win_Underground.pdf\nhttp://web.archive.org/web/20160705055416/http://shotcrete.org:80/media/Archive/2014Win_Architecture.pdf\nhttp://web.archive.org/web/20160804094059/http://shotcrete.org:80/media/Archive/2014Win_PoolRec.pdf\nhttp://web.archive.org/web/20160705055638/http://shotcrete.org:80/media/Archive/2014Win_Infrastructure.pdf\nhttp://web.archive.org/web/20160909114545/http://www.shotcrete.org:80/media/Archive/2014Win_International.pdf\n\n* Helps in understanding Shotcrete technology better and the difficulties that can occur while performing.\n* In slope stabilization it proven to be cost effective and sustainable using a soil nail wall system.\n* Pools are an example of precision and water-curing capabilities\n* Used to stabilize drilling operations\n\n''' Mechanism of wet shotcrete interacting with rock in support systems '''\n\nLI Li, WU Ai-xiang, WANG Yi-ming, HAN Bin, WANG Hong-jiang, WANG Chun-lai \"Mechanism of wet shotcrete interacting with rock in support systems\"\n\nAbstract: In order to have a good understanding of the behavior of wet shotcrete as a support element interacting with the rock mass,\nmechanism of wet shotcrete interacting with rock in support systems was analyzed through theoretical, numerical study and\nanalytical analysis. A new model of distribution of rock stress state after wet shotcrete was applied, which includes shotcrete layer,\ncomposite layer, strengthening layer, plastic layer and elastic layer, and a full illustration of the rock mass stress state was given after\nshotcrete interacting with rock mass. At the same time, numerical analysis with FLAC gives a stress distribution along the monitor\nline, respectively, at the sidewall and roof of the tunnel. The displacement obviously decreases with the depth of rock, the tangential\nstress for tunnel supported by shotcrete is lower than that without shotcrete, and radial stress for tunnel supported by shotcrete is\nhigher than that without shotcrete. It has been demonstrated by AIRY’S stress function, which gives a reasonable solution. Finally,\nthe application of wet shotcrete in Jinfeng Gold Mine shows that the displacement of tunnel decreases obviously in sidewall and roof.\n\n''' Fibre reinforced shotcrete '''\n\n''' DESIGN OF FIBRE REINFORCED SHOTCRETE LININGS WITH MACRO-SYNTHETIC FIBRES '''\n\nE. S. Bernard \"DESIGN OF FIBRE REINFORCED SHOTCRETE LININGS WITH MACRO-SYNTHETIC FIBRES\"\nhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/241804218_DESIGN_OF_FIBRE_REINFORCED_SHOTCRETE_LININGS_WITH_MACRO-SYNTHETIC_FIBRES\n\nABSTRACT\nFibre Reinforced Shotcrete (FRS) reinforced with macro-synthetic fibres has now\nbeen used to stabilize ground in underground mines and tunnels, and for slope\nstabilization, for over 10 years. Experience has demonstrated that macro-synthetic\nfibres are capable of exhibiting very high levels of performance and are a highly\neffective form of reinforcement for both temporary and permanent ground support.\nEngineering data also exists showing that macro-synthetic fibres excel with regard to\ncorrosion resistance and embrittlement in shotcrete, and are very effective in ground\nsubject to high deformation. Despite this, the design of FRS linings using this type of\nreinforcement lags behind that of linings incorporating alternative forms of\nreinforcement. There is a lack of appreciation within the engineering construction\ncommunity that methods of design exist for this material and that these have been\nproven satisfactory. This paper will attempt to summarize generic approaches to the\ndesign of temporary and permanent ground support based on macro-synthetic FRS.\n \n* Can know about fibre reinforced shotcrete strength\n* Fiber reinforcement effects corrosion, post crack energy absorption, post fire accacity, and rigidity.\n* Permanent ground support on soft vs firm ground\n\n''' Embrittlement of fiber-reinforced shotcrete '''\n\nErik Bernard Embrittlement of fiber-reinforced shotcrete\nhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/284099980_Embrittlement_of_fiber-reinforced_shotcrete\n\n* To know about the environmental effects on shotcrete\n* Long term testing\n* Loss of ductility is esential to be aware of\n* Macro-synthetic fibers absorb energy best with age\n\n''' Age-dependent changes in post-crack performance of fibre reinforced shotcrete linings '''\n\nErik StefanBernard \"Age-dependent changes in post-crack performance of fibre reinforced shotcrete linings\"\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0886779815000899\n\nAbstract\nIt is commonly assumed that when a mix achieves satisfactory performance in Quality Control tests at 28 days this result will translate into satisfactory performance throughout the design life of the corresponding concrete structure. While this is generally true of the compressive strength of concrete it is not necessarily true for other parameters. The post-crack performance of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) differs from that of conventionally reinforced concrete in that the post-crack performance of fibres is related in a complex manner to the characteristics of the concrete matrix. Age-dependent changes in the characteristics of the concrete matrix can effect changes in the post-crack behaviour of fibres. The present investigation has examined how the post-crack energy absorption of fibre reinforced shotcrete (FRS) changes with aging and has found that some types of fibre exhibit dramatically different performance characteristics at late age compared to that displayed at 28 days. This change can have significant consequences for the design of ground support based on fibre reinforced shotcrete. Tunnel linings required to resist sustained ground stresses, or which may be subject to deformation associated with seismicity or ground movement at later ages, should be designed with consideration of a possible long-term loss of ductility exhibited by some types of fibre reinforced shotcrete.\n\n* To know the effect of age on the shotcrete\n* Ductility standard of 400 J energy absorption at 40 mm deflection\n* Ground movement such as freezing requires adequate ductility to avoid collapse\n\n''' FIBER REINFORCED WET-MIX SHOTCRETE UNDER IMPACT '''\n\ny P. Gupta, N. Banthia, and C. Yan \"FIBER REINFORCED WET-MIX SHOTCRETE UNDER IMPACT\"\nhttps://ascelibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.1061/%28ASCE%290899-1561%282000%2912%3A1%2881%29\n\nABSTRACT: As a result of excavation blasting, traffic, sudden ground movements, rock bursts, and seismic\nactivity, shotcrete is often subjected to impact and other dynamic loads. Limited data exist, however, with regard\nto the resistance of shotcrete to such dynamic loads. Impact resistance of wet-mix shotcrete reinforced with 10\ndifferent types of fibers was investigated using instrumented drop weight impact tests. A direct comparison was\nmade with the quasi-static response. Both beam and plate specimens were tested and the data were correlated.\nFiber reinforcement was found to be highly effective in improving the fracture energy absorption and toughness\nunder impact loading, but the improvements under impact loading were found to be substantially different than\nthose seen in quasi-static tests, and were also highly dependent on the type of fiber used. When beams and\nplates were compared, the relative improvements between fiber types were found not necessarily in agreement.\n\n* To know why Fibre reinforced wet mix shotcrete is better\n* Dynamic load testing and loading axis for surface coating\n* Synthetic fibers advised\n* Fiber recommendation varies depending on static or dynamic load. Static loads improve more greatly from fiber addition.\n\n''' Accelerating admixtures for shotcrete '''\n\nLuiz Roberto Prudêncio Jr. \"Accelerating admixtures for shotcrete\"\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0958946598800073\n\nAbstract\nA variety of additives and admixtures are added to shotcrete to improve strength, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, freezing/thawing and abrasion resistance characteristics, and reduce rebound. Accelerators are being used increasingly in both dry- and wetprocess applications. Accelerators are common in the dry process to increase early strength and reduce dust and rebound and in the wet process are used to achieve rapid set and early strength. The choice of a particular accelerator and its dosage is largely governed by the setting time required for the shotcrete application. Various watersoluble salts of the alkali metals can be used to accelerate the setting of cement. Most of the set accelerators used today are based on alkali aluminates in combination with carbonates and hydroxides and produced in both liquid and powder form. The performance of these accelerators depends on the cement chemical composition and fineness, and the presence of mineral additions such as flyash, and blastfurnace slag. This performance is generally evaluated using setting tests on cement/ accelerator pastes despite the belief of some researchers that this procedure can produce misleading results. This paper describes the main accelerators used in shotcrete and presents some results of field tests performed on shocrete panels evaluating the behavior of different accelerators. Particular attention is given to a new liquid alkalifree shotcrete accelerator that showed a very interesting behavior at very early ages and no strength loss at later ages. The early strengths were evaluated using non-destructive tests (Constant Depth Penetrometer and Constant Energy Penetrometer).\n\n* May be used for shotcrete knowledge but not necessary\n* Accelerating admixtures reduce strength significantly and results are temperature dependant\n* Limited use to special applications\n\n''' slope stabilization using soil nails: design assumptions and construction realities '''\n\nTan,Yean-chin and Chow Chee-Meng \"slope stabilization using soil nails: design assumptions and construction realities\"\nhttp://gnpgeo.com.my/download/publication/2004_11.pdf\n\n* May be useful if racking is to be done on on slope.\n* Soil nail placement is important for structural integrity but location dependant\n\n''' Detachment of shotcrete lining due to long terminteraction with ground water '''\n\nDr. Michael Romer \"Detachment of shotcrete lining due to long term interaction with ground water\"\nhttps://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.142959!/file/10.pdf\n\n* useful if shotcrete solar racking is done in a location where land is wet.\n* Main idea of leaching can pertain to erosion and degradation due to rain and dirt buildup\n\n''' Soil and rock slope stabilization using fiber-reinforced shotcrete in North America '''\n\nMike Ballou and Matt Niermann\"Soil and rock stabilization using shotcrete in north america\"\nhttps://www.shotcrete.org/media/Archive/2002Sum_Ballou.pdf\n\n* useful for shotcrete application at any location\n\n''' Thermal properties of lightweight dry-mix shotcrete containing expanded perlite aggregate '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0958946514000936\n\n* Thermal diffusivity and mechanical performance assessed\n* The thermal diffusivity and conductivity of the shotcrete was able to be dropped without losing performance up to 75% sand additive\n\n=== Optical Design and Characterization of Solar Concentrators for Photovoltaics ===\n\nJ. Nilsson, \"Optical Design and Characterization of Solar Concentrators for Photovoltaics\"\n\n* optics of concentrators\n* optical efficiency of the concentrators\n* Models to estimate output\n* Assess azimuth angle, incomplete illumination, adjustable inclination, and dip at noon\n* Better efficiency in winter due to reduced change in angle\n* Reflectors improve efficiency particularly in morning and evening\n\n''' Effects of low concentration planer concentrators on array-scale solar photovoltaic systems performance '''\n\n* Open circuit voltage and short circuit current\n* Greater efficiency in winter\n* Monthly tilt angle adjustment\n\n''' Photovoltaic system performance enhancement with non-tracking planar concentrators: Experimental results and BDRF based modelling '''\n\nhttps://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7293585\n\n* Non-tracking is more affordable and improves output by 35-45%\n* In depth angle assessment\n\n''' Model of Loss Mechanisms for Low Optical Concentration on Solar Photovoltaic Arrays with Planar Reflectors '''\n\nRob Andrews, Nabeil Alazzam, and Joshua M. Pearce, “Model of Loss Mechanisms for Low Optical Concentration on Solar Photovoltaic Arrays with Planar Reflectors”, 40th American Solar Energy Society National Solar Conference Proceedings, pp. 446-453 (2011).\n\n* Losses involved in using flat plate concentrator theoretically.\n\n''' Design Procedure of V-trough Cavities for Photovoltaic Systems '''\n\nhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/%28SICI%291099-159X%28199801/02%296%3A1%3C43%3A%3AAID-PIP200%3E3.0.CO%3B2-P\n\n* Experimentally shows use of concentrator increases energy output.\n* Trough angle and concentration ratio finite ranges and plateau maximization\n* Cost analysis\n\n''' OPERATION OF STANDARD PV MODULES IN V-TROUGH CONCENTRATORS '''\n\nhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/276253544_Operation_of_standard_PV_modules_in_V-trough_concentrators\n\n* Overview of double reflectors to reduce cost and increase efficiency\n* Wider trophs reduce error and better circulation\n* Synthesis of which factors affect angle calculations and efficiencies\n\n''' PERFORMANCE OF A V-TROUGH PHOTOVOLTAIC/THERMAL CONCENTRATOR '''\n\nhttps://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/56364165.pdf\n\n* Aluminum instead of stainless steel are more cost effective, made equally durable, but need to improve thermal effects\n* V trough is feasible but needs cooling\n\n''' Concentrating solar module with horizontal reflectors '''\n\nToshio Matsushima, Tatsuyuki Setaka, SeiichiMuroyama\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927024802001563\n\n* Helpful in constructing a Solar module with concentrators\n* Sun altitude analysis\n* Concentrating module at 20 degrees to horizontal and 90 degrees to solar panel with high reflector rating\n* Lesser angles create greater efficiencies in winter months\n\n''' The enhancement of energy gain of solar collectors and photovoltaic panels by the reflection of solar beams '''\n\nM.D.J Pucarab, A.R Despicb\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544201000810\n\n* Can be used for optimal positioning of concentrators\n\nModels to estimate output\n\n* Assess azimuth angle, incomplete illumination, adjustable inclination, and dip at noon\n* Better efficiency in winter due to reduced change in angle\n* Reflectors improve efficiency particularly in morning and evening\n\n''' Performance evaluation of photovoltaic modules at different tilt angles and orientations '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890403003571\n\n* Tilt angle range calculations with southern orientation\n\n''' Comparative study of PV modules with and without a tilted plane reflector '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0196890400001394\n\n* Open circuit voltage and short circuit current\n* Greater efficiency in winter\n* Monthly tilt angle adjustment\n\n''' Optimization of operational and design parameters of plane reflector-tilted flat plate solar collector systems '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544200000037\n\nH.M.S. Hussein, G.E. Ahmad, H.H. El-Ghetany\n\n* Useful in construction of solar modules along with concentrators, and for there positioning\n\n''' Booster ReØectors for PVModules in Sweden '''\n\nhttps://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/1099-159X%28200005/06%298%3A3%3C279%3A%3AAID-PIP316%3E3.0.CO%3B2-%23\n\n* Ueful in designing the module\n* 30% performance increase with 10% cost increase\n* 0.4-0.5% reduction in efficiency per degree C\n* Reduce thermal effect by increasing mass\n* Angle analysis\n* Low resistance is key to performance with boosters\n* Parallel vs series analysis\n\n''' Flow and heat transfer in the air gap behind photovoltaic panels '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/search/advanced?docId=10.1016/S1364-0321(98)00005-7\n\n* Useful in temperature reducing of the panels.\n* 0.4-0.6% reduction in efficiency per degree C therefore 20*change = 0.6-1% difference in efficiency\n* Turbulent and laminar flow observed\n* Reducing emissivity of the rebound surface decreases flow through the gap, therefore a high emissivity is recommended\n* Heat is radiated to back surface then heats the air by convection\n\n''' A review of solar photovoltaic systems cooling technologies '''\n\nhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/317155834_A_review_of_solar_photovoltaic_systems_cooling_technologies\n\n* Assess 9 heat removal techniques with many pros and cons\n* Many use and waste water\n* Transparent cooling and hybrid solar photovoltaic/thermal system\n\n''' V-TROUGH CONCENTRATOR ON A PHOTOVOLTAIC FULL TRACKING SYSTEM IN A HOT DESERT CLIMATE '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/096014819500055O\n\n* Separation angle and concentration ratio to increase efficiency and reduce cost\n* Rays: direct, incident, diffused\n* open voltage and closed current\n\n''' PERFORMANCE OF A V-TROUGH PHOTOVOLTAIC/THERMAL CONCENTRATOR '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0038092X13005057\n\n* Water cooled to increase heat transfer on back surface of PV\n* Suggested concentrator: mirror finished stainless steel\n* Equations that take into account reflectance\n* Latitude is equal to absorber mount angle\n\n''' A Combined Optical, Thermal and Electrical Performance Study of a V-Trough PV System—Experimental and Analytical Investigations '''\n\nhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/275257164_A_Combined_Optical_Thermal_and_Electrical_Performance_Study_of_a_V-Trough_PV_System-Experimental_and_Analytical_Investigations\n\n* Reduce temperatures with low concentration and low cost reflectors\n\n=== Snow Removal ===\n\n''' An Experimental investigation of snow removal from photovoltaic solar panels by electrical heating '''\n\nhttps://services.lib.mtu.edu:2072/science/article/pii/S0038092X18306789?via%3Dihub\n\n* Thermal snow removal from electrical heater and reverse current\n* Frameless panels advised\n* Meltwater refreeze warning and upper/lower half frame melt addressed\n* Tilt angel and back insulation\n\n''' Modified vacuum tubes for overheating limitation of solar collectors: A dynamic modeling approach '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0038092X18306832\n\n* Assess solutions for thermal overheating\n\n''' Design and low energy ventilation solutions for atria in the tropics '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210670711000606\n\n* Uses dynamic thermal model (DTM)\n* Pressure mechanical ventilation explained\n\n=== Drainage ===\n\n''' Roof and rain gutter ice melt system and assembly '''\n\nhttp://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=9121179.PN.&OS=PN/9121179&RS=PN/9121179\n\n* Two heat cables: at edge and in gutter\n\n''' New landscape-orientated PV system, offset seismic reinforcement, environmental education at NIT '''\n\nhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2003.9674902\n\n* Solar panel waterproofing function\n\n''' Comparison of Pavement Drainage Systems '''\n\nhttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0361198196151900101\n\n* Water leakage into pavement is bad\n* Evaluates the performance of cement drainage systems\n* Base layer is significant\n* Geocompostingand open grade remove water fastest\n* Reduce panel length and to reduce cracking\n\n''' Enhanced Parking Lot Design for Stormwater Treatment '''\n\nhttps://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/40644(2002)12\n\n* Reduce runoff retaining on site\n* Swales and deep rooted vegetation greatly improve drainage\n* Assess nutrient and mineral transport\n\n=== Paint as reflector ===\n\n''' Investigating performance prediction and optimization of spectral solar reflectance of cool painted layers '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378778815301122\n\n* Isotropic scattering properties of paints\n* Particles, particle diameter, and paint thickness\n\n''' Acrylic white paint of industrial sector for cool roofing application '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0038092X18304547\n\n* Solar reflectance, infrared emittance, albedo\n* Reduction in surface temperature\n* Degradation over time assessment\n\n''' Cement based superhydrophobic coating with excellent robustness and solar reflective ability '''\n\nhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/338578818_Cement_based_superhydrophobic_coating_with_excellent_robustness_and_solar_reflective_ability\n\n* Solar reflectance coating durability\n* Self cleaning with rainfall, mechanical durability, and temperature variance resistance\n* Optimum Ti02 30%\n* Comprehensive conclusion\n\n''' Passive cooling techniques through reflective and radiative roofs in tropical houses in Southeast Asia: A literature review '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2095263514000399\n\n* Increasing urban population causes increasing energy consumption\n* Passive cooling: reduce heat, modify thermal gain, dissipate internal heat (due to reflectance and emittance)\n* Colored paint is effective because the majority of sun rays are visible light\n* Limitations in weathering, dirt, and visual obscurity\n* 2 facing surfaces of different temps will have radiant flux\n\n''' Estimating thermal performance of cool colored paints '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378778809001546\n\n* Cool pain of darker colors are effect but not as much as white\n* Pigment aspect of paint effects: gloss, hiding power, strength, permeability of film, and albedo\n* Complex inorganic colored pigments (CICPs) have greater reflectance and emissivity thus reducing infrared radiation\n* CICPs are very effective and have similar absorption but higher reflectance\n* Cost is up to $1/m^2 more but increases durability but has low cost/easy application\n\n=== Row walkways ===\n\n''' The science behind codes and standards for safe walkways '''\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003687015300508?via%3Dihub\n\n* Level and slip reinforced walkways\n\n''' Effective Width of Pedestrian Corridors '''\n\nhttps://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%290733-947X%281984%29110%3A1%2880%29\n\n* Clearance from walls based off boundary conditions\n* 5.5 -7.8 in clearance needed\n\n''' OSHA 1910.73 '''\n\nhttps://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/standardinterpretations/1982-03-09\n\n* Walkways must be at least 18in in width\n\n=== Grading feasibility ===\n\n''' Partially Automated Grading: Construction Process Innovation '''\n\nhttps://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9364(1988)114:1(19)\n\n* Fine grading necessary for construction on grades\n* Automation is time efficient, accurate, and consistent\n\n''' Estimated Costs of Precision Land Grading With On-Farm Labor '''\n\nhttp://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.623.3534&rep=rep1&type=pdf\n\n* Long term investment\n* Erosion control\n* $0.51/yard^3 to move soil\n\n====Estimated Costs of Precision Grading\nSugarcane Fields, 2017====\nhttps://www.lsuagcenter.com/~/media/system/8/7/5/a/875a105c7fdf9bc07be233b1281d12ae/2017%20sugarcane%20precision%20grading%20cost%20reportpdf.pdf\n\n* Precise slope effects draining drastically\n* Cost analysis in cubic yards of dirt not square yards\n\n''' Landform Grading and Slope Evolution '''\n\nhttps://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1995)121:10(729)\n\n* Long term slope stability and settling\n* Strategic runoff concentration\n* More complex shapes and grading do not cause significant increase in cost or feasibility but can be done with conventional equipment\n* Cost driven by volume of earth moved\n\n{{Page data\n| license = CC-BY-SA-3.0\n}}\n\n[[Category:5490-19]]\n[[Category:5490-2020]]"}