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80
60
40
20 500000 0 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Figure 18: Energy investments in developing countries by OECD members ($ amount, 2002 prices) Source: OECD Creditor Reporting System Database 134
Totals per Year (x1000)
8000000 Renewable 7000000 Hydro Non Renewable 6000000
150
5000000
4000000
3000000
Analysis And Appraisal ..................................................................................75 vi Planning and managing projects: Objective Oriented Project Planning
and the Logical Framework.................................................................................75
Cost-benefit analysis ...........................................................................................84
Social analysis .....................................................................................................91
Environmental analysis .......................................................................................96
Other dimensions. Integration of criteria...........................................................101
- Actual Assessment In The Case Of Energy Projects .................105 Analysis of World Bank documents..................................................................105
Findings of the World Commission on Dams ...................................................123 6. Final Considerations .................................................................................131
- Alternatives In An Appraisal Report...........................153==
Bibliography .......................................................................................................154
vii LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Typical stakeholder table for a development project...........................................58
Table 2: Typical participatory matrix for a development project ......................................59
Table 3: Stakeholder Analysis table from TeamUp methodology and
software.......................................................................................................................61
Table 4: Stakeholder table for a private sector population project in Pakistan
funded by ODA...........................................................................................................65
Table 5: Participation matrix for a private sector population project in
Pakistan funded by ODA ............................................................................................66
Table 6: Stakeholder table for Water Supply and Sanitation project funded
by DFID ......................................................................................................................68
Table 7: Participation matrix for a Water Supply and Sanitation project
funded by DFID..........................................................................................................69
Table 8: Stakeholder table for Emergency Sanitation projects..........................................71
Table 9: Participatory matrix for an Emergency Sanitation Project ..................................72
Table 10: Logical Framework Matrix................................................................................80
Table 11: Examples of analysis of alternatives in large dam projects.............................130
viii LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Main framework for Technology and Development..........................................18
Figure 2: Technology and the Economy............................................................................20
Figure 3: Integral view of technology, society and development......................................27
Figure 4: Technology and Power.......................................................................................35
Figure 5: Technology and the Environment ......................................................................42
Figure 6: Baum's project cycle...........................................................................................49
Figure 7: Problem tree in Objective Oriented Project Planning ........................................77
Figure 8: Social Assessment process according to the World Bank..................................93
Figure 9: average space allocated to each of the five aspects..........................................111
Figure 10: Detailed break down of the social aspect .......................................................112
Figure 11: average space allocated weighted by project's total $ amount .......................114
Figure 12: Detailed break down of the social aspect (weighted by project's
$ amount) ..................................................................................................................115
Figure 13: Projects assigned to energy subcategories......................................................116
Figure 14: Projects assigned to energy subcategories, weighted by $ amount................118
Figure 15: relative importance of the five aspects by project type ..................................119
ix Figure 16: Evolution of economic and financial assessment for large dam
projects......................................................................................................................126
Figure 17: Evolution of environmental and social assessment for large dam
projects......................................................................................................................127
Figure 18: Energy investments in developing countries by OECD members
($ amount, 2002 prices) ............................................................................................133
Figure 19: Energy investments in developing countries by OECD members
($ Total, 2002 prices)................................................................................................134
Figure 20: Energy investments in developing countries by OECD members
(n. projects) ...............................................................................................................135
Figure 21: Energy investments in developing countries by OECD memebers
(total projects)...........................................................................................................136
x 1
1. Introduction[edit | edit source]
Planet Earth. 2004 CE. Two robotic explorers arrive and land successfully on planet
Mars after a 6 months trip from planet Earth of about 60 million miles. The president of
the United States announces a new expensive goal of sending human beings to Mars.
Planet Earth. 2004 CE. 852 million human beings, more than 13% of humankind, are
malnourished— a number that increased over the last 4 years. At least five million
children under the age of 5 die a year as a result of malnutrition and associated diseases
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2004) .
The belief that technology is fundamental for development, characteristic of Western
modernity, and the pervasive faith in scientific and technical knowledge has inspired the
field of "development" since its inception in the aftermath of World War II. In 1949,
during his first speech as president of the U.S., Harry S. Truman stated:
More than half the people of the world are living in conditions approaching misery… Their poverty is a handicap and a threat both to them and to more prosperous areas. For the first time in history humanity possesses the knowledge and the skill to relieve the suffering of these people … I believe that we should make available to peace-loving peoples the benefits of our store of technical knowledge in order to help them realize their aspirations for a better life … Greater production is the key to prosperity and peace. And the key to greater production is a wider and more vigorous application of modern scientific and technical knowledge.1
Many consider Truman's speech the beginning of a new era where the industrially
advanced countries of the world would concern themselves with the "development" of
1 President Harry Truman, Inaugural address as president of the United States, 20 January 1949, in Documents on American Foreign Relations, Connecticut: Princeton University Press,
- 2
the so called less developed countries (LDCs). More than two decades later, after
American technological prowess had been able to send a man to the moon, then-Secretary
of State Henry Kissinger stated:
For the first time we may have the technical capacity to free mankind from the scourge of hunger. Therefore today we must proclaim a bold objective: that within a decade, no child will go to bed hungry, that no family will fear for its next day's bread, and that no human being's future will be stunted by malnutrition.2
Today, three decades after Kissinger's statement, still many children go to bed
hungry, many families do not have enough food, and malnutrition is a terrible problem in
many areas of the world. Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger is still today at the
top of the international community's agenda – note the United Nations's Millennium
Development Goals. What went wrong? Do we not, or did we not yet have the technical
capacity to solve these problems? Or does the eradication of poverty around the world
and the economic and social development of LDCs necessitate much more than just
advanced technical capabilities and scientific knowledge?
This author believes the latter to be the case. It has been argued, for example, that
genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and specifically genetically engineered crops
constitute the technological panacea that, if sufficiently mastered and promoted, will do
away with hunger in the world. Hartwig de Haen, the assistant director general in the
economic and social department of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
said in an interview after the release of FAO's report The state of food insecurity in the
2 Henry Kissinger, World Food Conference, Rome,
- 3
World 2004 that "the world in aggregate is getting wealthier and producing more than
enough food … The problem is the access of people to jobs, to resources, to land and to
money to buy food. (Becker, 2004)
This author agrees with Attwood, Bruneau and Galaty, when they assert that
"poverty reduction depends more on the distribution of political power than it does on the
impact of capital, technology or markets."(Attwood, et al., 1988: 10).
Technology by itself will not solve the problem of poverty and hunger, although it is
certainly an important tool that, if used properly, can help the international community,
and practitioners of "development" in particular, in the pursuit of that goal.
Almost any development intervention, whether or not it is related directly to issues
of technology transfer, technical assistance, or technological capacity development,
makes use of a specific technology to reach its goals. This means that at some point any
development intervention chooses, whether implicitly or explicitly, one type of
technology over another.3 For example, in an area where many people suffer from
malnutrition, would it be appropriate to introduce capital-intensive modern agricultural
3 The term "technology" in used in a rather loose manner here, referring to two different technologies as two different ways to reach a goal. If the goal is to provide energy for lighting and cooking in a village, the different technologies that could be used would include a connection to the electricity grid, an off-grid electricity supply such as photovoltaic power or wind power, or wood burning for cooking and kerosene lamps for lighting. Next chapter includes a discussion of the definition of technology. For extensive discussions on the subject read Arghiri Emmanuel's Appropriate or Underdeveloped Technology? (1982) and Raphael Kaplinsky's Automation: The Technology and Society (1984). 4
technologies using GMOs for increased productivity, or might it be better to support a
land redistribution program and traditional agricultural techniques supported by irrigation
based on human-powered water pumps?
How and why one type of technology is chosen over another, who is involved in that
decision, and whether there is any consideration given to potential technological
alternatives are the main concerns of this thesis.
There are numerous scholarly works concerning the role technology plays in
different aspects of human life on Earth. Several authors discuss the relationship between
technology and society from historical (Diamond, 2003; Landes, 1999), anthropological
and sociopolitical (Hawken, et al., 1999; Kaplinsky, 1984; Postman, 1992), and
philosophical (Illich, 1973) perspectives. There is a plethora of authors discussing the
importance of technology in developed economies from an economic point of view
(Galbraith, 1985; Galbraith, 1973; Rosenberg, 1982). In the development literature there
is abundant material on the role of technology in developing nations (Emmanuel, et al.,
1982; Escobar, 1995; Schumacher, 1973; Smillie, 2000; World Bank, 1998), and on
technology transfer between nations and its different mechanisms (Katz, 1987; Madu,
1992). Also within the literature on development, many studies address the
appropriateness or adequacy of the technologies promoted and used in developing
countries and the effects of choosing one specific technology over another (Forsyth, et
al., 1980; James, 2000; James and Khan, 1997; McRobie, 1995; Rodd, 1994; World
Water Assessment Programme of the United Nations, 2003). 5
However, the literature is not so abundant in studies that focus on the dynamics of
actual development interventions, on the understanding of the processes involved and the
interactions between the various stakeholders concerned. Most of what is written in this
regard takes the form of internal evaluation reports on projects or programs implemented
by bilateral and multilateral agencies such as USAID or the World Bank and is, therefore,
not readily available. The fact that the pioneer work by Hirschman on analysis of
development projects, Development projects observed (Hirschman, 1967), was reissued
three decades