Background[edit | edit source]
Originally created by Nicholas Vandewetering of FAST.
This page is the dedicated to the literature review of using Polycarbonate, Stamp Sand, Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate Waste Composites and other plastic composites as a structural material, specifically to substitute concrete. This literature review is broken down into the standardized testing of concrete, and material properties of plastic composites
This page builds upon the Stamp sand literature review.
Literature - Standardized testing[edit | edit source]
Evaluation of Lab performance of stamp sand and acrylonitrile styrene acylate waste composites without asphalt as a road surface materials[edit | edit source]
Dongzhao Jin, Theresa K. Meyer, Siyu Chen, Kwadwo Ampadu Boateng, Joshua M. Pearce, Zhanping You, Evaluation of lab performance of stamp sand and acrylonitrile styrene acrylate waste composites without asphalt as road surface materials, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127569
- Puts acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA) mixture through the following asphalt cement tests: "1) Dynamic modulus to estimate the deformation under different load and frequency levels, 2) Hamburg wheel tracking device rutting test was used to test the high-temperature performance, 3) disk-shaped compact tension test tested the low-temperature performance, 4) moisture susceptibility was determined by the dry/wet strength ratio, 5) coefficient of permeability was estimated by the water permeability test, and 6) mass loss of aggregate was estimated by the Cantabro loss test."
- Dynamic Test: Specimens prepared according to AASHTO standard T342.
- Hamburg wheel tracking device: Specimens prepared according to AASHTO T321 standards.
- Disc-Shaped Compaction Tension: Specimens prepared according to ASTM D7313
- Moisture susceptibility: Determined by dry/wet strength ratio, put through an indirect tensile test, based on ASTM D6931 specification. This ratio must be >= 0.8.
Results:
Dynamic modulus - ASA with 40% sand shows higher stiffness compared to 30% sand.
Hamburg wheel tracking device - Excellent rutting resistance, 40% sand performs better.
Disc-shaped compact tension - Asphalt has better crack resistance compared to ASA. Fracture energy of asphalt is 42-77% higher than that of ASA.
Moisture Susceptibility - The tensile strength ratio (wet/dry) of ASA and asphalt are larger than 0.8, thus they satisfy ASTM D6931
Water permeability - Average coefficient of permeability of ASA is 6-10 times higher than asphalt for same air void level.
Cantabro loss - Average aggregate loss percent of ASA is 9.2-10.8 times higher than that of asphalt. Weak bond between ASA and sand particles. This demands futures tests on the road - abrasion may be an issue.
Designing and Proportioning Normal Concrete Mixtures[edit | edit source]
University of Memphis, PCA Manual, Chapter 9
Strength: fc' at 28 days is expected to be equal to or exceeded by the average of any set of three consecutive strength tests. ACI 318 requires fc' to be at least 17.5 MPa. No individual test can be more than 3.5 MPa below the specified strength.
Table 9-1 provides maximum water-cement ratios, and minimum design strengths for various exposure conditions: Concrete exposed to freezing and thawing in a moist condition or deicers must have a minimum compressive strength of 31 MPa.
Slump: Ensures the mix is workable, and prevents aggregate segregation within the mix. ACI 211.1 suggests for plain footings, caissons, and substructure, slump must range from 25-75mm.
Maximum Chloride Ion Content for Corrosion Protection: Essential for reinforced mixes. ASTM C 1218 provides maximum water-soluble chloride ion percent by mass of concrete. Reinforced mixtures exposed to chloride in service <= 0.15%. Other reinforced mixtures <= 0.30%.
Air Content: Should not exceed 8%. No areas prone to high freeze-thaw cycles, a minimum of 5% should be achieved.
Quikrete: Concrete Mix Data Sheet[edit | edit source]
The most commonly used ready-mix concrete for fence & deck footings, sidewalks & walkways, and floor slabs and patios.
Typical Physical Properties: Slump, ASTM C143 2 in to 3 in (50 mm to 75 mm)
Unit Weight, ASTM C138 Approximately 140 lb/ft3 (2242.5 kg/m3)
Compressive Strength, ASTM C39 Age PSI (MPa) 7 days 2500 (17.2) 28 days 4000 (27.5)
TECHNICAL DATA APPLICABLE STANDARDS: • ASTM C39 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
- ASTM C138 Standard Test Method for Density (Unit Weight), Yield, and Air Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete
- ASTM C143 Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete
- ASTM C387 Standard Specification for Packaged, Dry, Combined Materials for Concrete and High Strength Mortar
Precautions:
- Curing compounds should not be applied if rain or temperatures below 50 ºF (10 ºC) are expected within 24 hours
- Protect concrete from freezing during the first 48 hours. Plastic sheeting and insulation blankets should be used if temperatures are expected to fall below 32 ºF (0 ºC)
ASTMC39- Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens[edit | edit source]
The compressive strength of the specimen, in MPa, can be calculated as, Compressive Strength (C) = Force (P) / Cross-Sectional Area (A)
Rate of Loading—Apply the load continuously and without shock.
All test specimens for a given test age shall be broken within the permissible time tolerances prescribed as follows: Test Age Permissible Tolerance 24 h +- 0.5 h, 3 days +- 2 h, 7 days +- 6 h, 28 days +- 20 h 90 days +- 2 days
Slump Cone Workability Test 1. Dampen the mold and place it on a flat, moist, non-absorbent surface. Fix the mold firmly in place by standing on the two-foot pieces. 2. Fill the mold with fresh concrete in three layers of approximately equal height. Each layer must be compacted in 25 strokes, uniformly distributed over the cross-section of the layer, using the tamping rod. 3. Strike off the excess of concrete from the top rim. 4. Raise the mold carefully in a steady upward lift with no lateral or torsional movement. 5. Measure the distance between the top of the mold and the displaced original center of the top surface of fresh concrete. 6. If the concrete falls away or shears off, repeat the test on a new sample. Calculated to the nearest 5mm.
Compressive strength to be calculated to the nearest 10 psi [0.1 MPa]
ASTMC496- Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens[edit | edit source]
The splitting tensile strength of the specimen, in MPa, can be calculated as, Tensile Strength (T) = 2 * Force (P) / π * Length of Specimen (l) * Diameter of Specimen
Rupture Strength is approximately 1.6*Splitting Strength. The theoretical rupture strength is 0.6*1.0(normal concrete density)*(fc'^0.5)
Rate of Loading—Apply the load continuously and without shock, at a constant rate within the range 0.7 to 1.4 MPa/min [100 to 200 psi/min] splitting tensile stress until failure of the specimen.
ASTMC231- Standard Test Method for Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the Pressure Method[edit | edit source]
Critical for the mix's permeability, but also the "breathability" against freeze-thaw cycles.
ASTMC143 - Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete[edit | edit source]
Instructions: - Dampen the mold and place it on a rigid, flat, level, moist, nonabsorbent surface, free of vibration
- Rod each layer 25 times uniformly over the cross section with the rounded end of the rod
- In filling and rodding the top layer, heap the concrete above the mold before rodding is started. After the top layer has been rodded, strike off the surface of the concrete by means of a screeding and rolling motion of the tamping rod.
- Remove the mold by raising it carefully in a vertical direction. Raise the mold a distance of 300 mm in 5 +- 2 seconds by a steady upward lift with no lateral or torsional motion. Complete these tests within an elapsed time of 2.5 mins.
- Measure the slump by determining the vertical distance between the top of the mold and the displaced original centre of the top surface of the specimen. Report the slump to the nearest 5 mm.
ASTM D570 - Water Absorption of Plastics[edit | edit source]
Typical Experimental Parameters for ASTM D570 Testing: Tubes - If the inside diameter is less than 76 mm (3 in.), the test specimens shall be the full section of the tube and 25.4 mm (1 in.) long. If the inside diameter is greater than 76 mm (3 in.) a rectangular sample shall be cut 76 mm in length in the circumferential direction of the tube and 25.4 mm in width lengthwise of the tube.
Type of specimensSpecificationsMaterials whose water-absorption value would be significantly affected by temperatures similar to 110 °C (230 °F)Dried in an oven for 24 h at 50 ± 3 °C (122 ± 5.4 °F)
Cooled in a desiccator
Materials whose water-absorption value will be compared with other plasticsMaterials whose water-absorption value has been shown not to be appreciably affected by temperatures up to 110 °C (230 °F)Dried in an oven for 1 h at 105 to 110 °C (221 to 230 °F).
Table II: Conditioning specifications
| Type of specimens | Specifications |
| Materials whose water-absorption value would be significantly affected by temperatures similar to 110 °C (230 °F) | Dried in an oven for 24 h at 50 ± 3 °C (122 ± 5.4 °F)
Cooled in a desiccator |
| Materials whose water-absorption value will be compared with other plastics | |
| Materials whose water-absorption value has been shown not to be appreciably affected by temperatures up to 110 °C (230 °F) | Dried in an oven for 1 h at 105 to 110 °C (221 to 230 °F). |
Table III: Immersion specifications
| Type of immersion protocol | Specifications |
| Twenty-four hours immersion | Immerse the samples for 24h in distilled water maintained at 23 ± 1 °C (73.4 ± 1.8 °F). |
| Comparison of absorption values between plastics | |
| Two hours immersion | Immerse the samples for 2h in distilled water maintained at 23 ± 1 °C (73.4 ± 1.8 °F).
(For materials with a high rate of absorption) |
| Repeated immersion | Immerse the samples for 2h in distilled water maintained at 23 ± 1 °C (73.4 ± 1.8 °F).
Immerse once again for 24h in distilled water maintained at 23 ± 1 °C (73.4 ± 1.8 °F). |
| Long term immersion | Immerse the samples for 24h in distilled water maintained at 23 ± 1 °C (73.4 ± 1.8 °F).
Dry, weight and reimmerse in the container for a week Dry, weight and immerse once again in the container (After this step, the weighing is executed every two weeks until the mass increase between a two-week period does not differ more than 1% of the total weight or 5 mg; the ending criterion is the greater one of them). |
| One half hour boiling water immersion | Immerse the samples for 30 minutes in boiling distilled water.
Cool in room temperature distilled water for 15 mins. (For materials with a high rate of absorption) |
| Immersion at 50 °C | Immerse the samples for 48h in distilled water maintained at 50 ± 1 °C (122.0 ± 1.8 °F). |
ASTM D695 - Standard Test Method for Compressive Properties of Rigid Plastics[edit | edit source]
DOI: 10.1520/D0695-15
Preferred specimen sizes are 12.7 by 12.7 by 25.4 mm (0.50 by 0.50 by 1 in.) (prism), or 12.7 mm in diameter by 25.4 mm (cylinder).
- 1 At least five specimens shall be tested for each sample in the case of isotropic materials. 8.2 Ten specimens, five normal to and five parallel with the principal axis of anisotropy, shall be tested for each sample in the case of anisotropic materials.
ASTM D638 - Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics[edit | edit source]
The standard speed of testing shall be 1.3 6 0.3 mm (0.050 6 0.010 in.)/min.
8A3.7.1 Test at least five specimens for each sample in the case of isotropic materials. A3.7.2 Test ten specimens, five normal to, and five parallel with, the principle axis of anisotropy, for each sample in the case of anisotropic materials.
All surfaces of the specimen shall be free of visible flaws, scratches, or imperfections. Marks left by coarse machining operations shall be carefully removed with a fine file or abrasive, and the filed surfaces shall then be smoothed with abrasive paper (No. 00 or finer).
Literature - Material Properties of Plastic Composites[edit | edit source]
Structural characteristic of fused deposition modelling polycarbonate material[edit | edit source]
"The results of series 1 are based on a minimum of 3 specimens as that number of specimens is consistent with ASTM D638 requirements."
"The ultimate tensile strength calculated from the Series 1 data shows a significant difference (up to 74% lower) from that published for the bulk material. Approximate tensile strength = 25 MPa."
"FDM manufactured parts for this investigation, in general, showed approximately a 45% decrease in modulus compared to bulk material as well as a decreased ultimate tensile strength by between 30% to 60% compared to the bulk."
Creative Mechanisms - Everything you need to know about polycarbonate (PC)[edit | edit source]
- Relative impact strength of PC is 4 times that of acrylic, and double that of ABS and PVC. Although the impact strength is high, it is very susceptible to scratching.
- Melting point is 155 degrees celsius. Can be heated, cooled, and reheated again without significant degradation. Thermoset plastics can only be heated once (hence the "set" in thermoset).
Mechanical Properties of Polycarbonate at 25 degrees C:
- Heat deflection temperature = 140 degrees C at 0.46 MPa.
- Tensile Strength = 59 MPa
- Flexural Strength = 93 MPa
- Specific Gravity = 1.19
No compression test results found.
Water Absorption Properties of Polymers[edit | edit source]
Increase in Weight % = (Wet weight - Conditioned weight) / Conditioned weight * 100
- PC water absorption ranges from 0.10 to 0.20 %.
- PVC water absorption ranges from 0.10 to 1.00 %.
- HDPE water absorption ranges from 0.005 to 0.01 %.
Reuse of Waste Plastics in Developing Countries: Properties of Waste Plastic-Sand Composites[edit | edit source]
- LDPE with 75% wt% sand: Compressive Strength ranges from 24 to 19 MPa.
- Compressive strength decreases significantly after 70% wt.% sand proportion. Optimal amount is 65%.
The optimum sand proportions that produced the maximum compressive strengths in LDPE and HDPE samples ranged between 65 to 75 wt.% and 65 to 80% wt.% respectively depending on sand particle size.
MatWeb Material Property Data - Compressive Strength Testing of Plastics[edit | edit source]
- Complies with ASTM D695. Specimen of 1/2" x 1/2" x 1" is placed in the compression apparatus and a known load is applied.
|
Using Plastic Sand as a Construction Material toward a Circular Economy[edit | edit source]
: Al-Sinan, M.A.; Bubshait, A.A. Using Plastic Sand as a Construction Material toward a Circular Economy: A Review. Sustainability 2022, 14, 6446. https:// doi.org/10.3390/su14116446
- Suriyaa et al. used recycled PET bottles, LDPE carry bags, and HDPE thermocol to make plastic bricks. As the plastic to sand ratio decreases, Compressive strength decreases, and water absorption increases significantly. Going from 60% to 80% increases water absorption almost 5 times, and compressive strength decreases almost 3 times.
- Abdel Tawab et al. replaced cement in the production of bricks and concrete blocks with melted plastic bags (LDPE). The 1:2 Plastic:Sand Ratio tested at 3.24 MPa bending stress capacity. 2:1 allowed for 10.26 MPa.
- PET compressive test results showed the following results (Chauhan et al.)
1:2 (19.01 MPa) - 1:3 (13.31 MPa) - 1:4 (6.27 MPa)
Water absorption reached a maximum value of 4.56% for 1:4 ratio.
The collection, transportation, and storage of plastic waste could be infeasible in some economies. Accordingly, economic evaluation studies are required to assess the feasibility of the construction industry adopting plastic sand bricks, blocks, and paving materials.
This paper discuses the significant disparity in the results since there were a lack of standards and uniformity in conducting the experiments.
Plastic Sand as a Construction Material[edit | edit source]
(ASTM) C129 (standard specification for non-load bearing concrete masonry) minimum requirement of 500 psi (3.45 MPa) per brick.
MatWeb Material Property Data - Tensile Property Testing of Plastics[edit | edit source]
Complies and tested with the parameters of ASTM D638
Tests the same plastics as MatWeb Material Property Data - Compressive Strength Testing of Plastics
| Polymer Type | Ultimate Tensile Strength
(MPa) |
Elongation
(%) |
Tensile Modulus
(GPa) |
|---|---|---|---|
| ABS | 40 | 30 | 2.3 |
| ABS + 30% Glass Fiber | 60 | 2 | 9 |
| Acetal Copolymer | 60 | 45 | 2.7 |
| Acetal Copolymer + 30% Glass Fiber | 110 | 3 | 9.5 |
| Acrylic | 70 | 5 | 3.2 |
| Nylon 6 | 70 | 90 | 1.8 |
| Polyamide-Imide | 110 | 6 | 4.5 |
| Polycarbonate | 70 | 100 | 2.6 |
| Polyethylene, HDPE | 15 | 500 | 0.8 |
| Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) | 55 | 125 | 2.7 |
| Polyimide | 85 | 7 | 2.5 |
| Polyimide + Glass Fiber | 150 | 2 | 12 |
| Polypropylene | 40 | 100 | 1.9 |
| Polystyrene | 40 | 7 | 3 |
Study on Mechanical Properties of Natural - Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer Hybrid Composites[edit | edit source]
"Reinforcing glass fiber into the sisal polypropylene composites enhanced tensile and flexural properties without any effect on tensile and flexural module. In addition to this, adding sisal fiber with glass fiber improves thermal properties and water resistance of the hybrid composites"
Biochar as a Building Material[edit | edit source]
- Biochar is a highly organic material that holds up to 6 times its weight in water. Extremely vulnerable to freeze thaw cycles.
Evaluation of Relationship between Water Absorption and Durability of Concrete Materials[edit | edit source]
- As water absorption of concrete specimens increases, the permeability coefficient approximately 2.5x, and the compressive strength decreases about 16%. Thus, water absorption is a critical factor that must be minimized in order to maintain a footing for over 25 years.
Incorporation of Biochar to Improve Mechanical, Thermal and Electrical Properties of Polymer Composites[edit | edit source]
- "The tensile strength results show that the composites with 15% biochar exhibited higher stress yield compared to higher loading rates [5]. The composites with higher quantities of biochar (25, 30 and 35%) fractured earlier showing semi-brittle behavior under tensile stress [49]. The tensile strength of the composites however did not undergo a drastic change and the values were close to the tensile strength value of polypropylene."
| Authors | Nicholas.Vandewetering |
|---|---|
| License | CC-BY-SA-4.0 |
| Language | English (en) |
| Related | 0 subpages, 1 pages link here |
| Impact | 302 page views |
| Created | June 8, 2022 by Nicholas.Vandewetering |
| Modified | February 9, 2023 by Felipe Schenone |
| Cite as | Nicholas.Vandewetering (2022–2023). "Literature Review: Plastic Composites as a Structural Material". Appropedia. Retrieved April 29, 2024. |
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