Kunal K. Shah, Dane George, Lukas Swan, J.M. Pearce. Performance and Analysis of Retail Store-Centred Microgrids with Solar Photovoltaic Parking Lot, Cogeneration and-Battery Hybrid Systems. Engineering Reports. 2021;e12418. https://doi.org/10.1002/eng2.12418open access
technical and economic potential for converting parking spaces in PV canopies
Case Study - investigates the economic effect of installing solar canopies in Walmart Supercenters, USA
Methods used for case study
Parking lot Solar Farm Conversion Economic Decision Algorithm
Incident Solar flux
Economic and Ecological importance deduced.
'Solar feasibility- Can solar energy compete economically?'
A. T. Furman and M. H. Rashid, Solar feasibility- Can solar energy compete economically? CONIELECOMP 2011, 21st International Conference on Electrical Communications and Computers, San Andres Cholula, 2011, pp. 10-13.
doi: 10.1109/CONIELECOMP.2011.5749323
Introduction to solar PV, their growth rates
Brief history about the materials used in solar cells, the their implementation into photovoltaics
Different PV manufacturing technologies, their payback times
Concentration systems for solar power
Two-Tank Direct system
Two-Tank Indirect system
Single tank Thermocline system
Scope of Solar power implementation
Case study on 400MW solar installation
'Optimal Charging of Plug-in Electric Vehicles for a Car-Park Infrastructure'
The typical energy consumption of a converted electric vehicle (EV) is on the order of 0.22 kWh per km (0.35 kWh per mile), including slow battery charging efficiency
The city EVs are used five days a week for several short trips with a 16 km (10 mile) average daily total distance driven
The average annual driving distance per EV of about 4,000 km (2,500 miles) is also consistent
The estimated present annual electricity use per EV is 910 kWh requiring a PV array size for charging of 0.488 kW per EV
detailed computer simulation and analysis of the entire system was to optimize the PV array electricity output under the existing design constraints
Santa Monica EV charging station is comprised of 42 of Amorphous PV panels
The solar array AC output is fed to a 200A Utility panel which feeds the seven charging ports and supplies the power for the exhibit lighting.Each charging port has either a 120V/20A or a 240V/30A circuit
A schematic diagram of the Santa Monica photovoltaic EV charging station is shown
The annual electricity generation from this facility is 3840 KWh which when used for a period of 30 years will generate about 120,000 KWh
'Sizing of a Car Parking Photovoltaic System: An Economic Analysis'
The paper represents a simple case study of small sized parking lot canopy structure and describes the whole procedure starting from the selection of materials, selection of the area to the very output of the resultant PV Canopy along with the cost analysis and payback period.
'V2G Parking Lot With PV Rooftop for Capacity Enhancement of a Distribution System'
The V2G ( Vehicle to grid) system and the power capacity of a typical parking lot are modeled under three scenarios
V2G system demand model
V2G system supply model
Heterogeneous car pool system
PV Rooftop system model is being discussed on a brief note
The time varying characteristics associated with a PV system are considered and a New equation for net power produced has been stated
The impact of Energy markets has been studied thoroughly and various demand and supply models for the V2G network as well as the PV rooftop effect on V2G have been addressed
Impacts of Weather conditions, Energy market dynamics and the traffic capability have been investigated
'Design Criteria for Structural Solar Supports for Parking Canopies Installations'
A detailed information on the PV canopies, their structures can be obtained from this paper such as
The four main criteria's for installing PV canopies
Durability
Functionality
Attractiveness
Affordability
Structural details of a Solar PV canopy such as dimensions, Eave Height, Location (Distance to electrical connection)
The design and constructional aspect as well as the advantages of the solar modules as roofs
'PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY SYSTEMS: A FEASIBILITY STUDY?'
Youakim Kalaani, Georgia Southern University; William Nichols, Georgia Southern University PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY SYSTEMS: A FEASIBILITY STUDY INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING RESEARCH & INNOVATION VOL.3, NO.1, SPRING/ SUMMER 2011
PV installation on a shopping center which operates 24 hrs a day for 7 days in a week
Solar insolation and arrangements to tilt angles of the modules during different periods of the year to get higher efficiency are discussed
Solar shading analysis is being done by an instrument called 'Solar Pathfinder'
Financial analysis of solar PV
Brigham and Ehrhardt’s capital budgeting methods
PV system costs
Cost inflations and its effects
Inverters costs and technicalities
'Optimal Operation of Electric Vehicle Parking Lots with Rooftop Photovoltaics'
This paper analyses the optimal method that can be implied in a Vehicle parking lot so as to maximise the profits for the parking lots by properly analysing the trends such as effect of seasons, market contributioms etc.
'Technology Roadmap: Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles'
Battery costs and limitations, and methods to encourage the use of PHEVs such as installation of fast charging stations accross daily use infrastructures such as shopping centres, Walmarts etc. , Battery swapping stations
Technology implemented, limitations, Advantages of PHEVs
Technical aspects of Batteries, challenges faced and their future scope
Emerging economies and their emerging PHEVs and EVs market study
'Using fleets of electric-drive vehicles for grid support'
This paper gives us a valuable insight towards the use of V2G power from battery-electric fleets to provide regulation (of ancillary srevices), which is a short-duration but high-value power market.
Introduction to hybrid vehicles, and their potential to be as a source to supply power to the grid as a support
Vehicles with batteries are being considered instead of PHEVs
Brief description of the need to regulate the ancillary services with the help of vehicle to grid system
Economics associated with the V2G system
Calculations for V2G revenues, cost and electrical power capacity
'The use of parking lots to solar-charge electric vehicles'
Overview of the parking lots used to charge the EVs ( Electric Vehicles)
Examples of Solar powered parking lots in California and Michigan
Positive Environmental effects such as reduced CO2 emissions, Reduction in Green House Gases, Improvement in the air quality index of the area
Other benefits include, No wait times during charging, protection from snow and rain, Cars remain cooler due to shaded parking etc
Energy production and typical sizes of modules and their net efficiencies
Charging types
level 1 - 1.8 to 2.4 KW via 120V AC plug
Level 2 - 19.2 KW via 208V (US Commercial sites), 240V(US & European Residential sites), also this is the popular type among the three and is ideal for supermarts, shopping centres etc.
Level 3 - 50 to 62.5 KW via 480 V AC connection
Charging strategies, optmization of power and Smart parking lots (V2G systems) have been discussed
'The Market Value and Cost of Solar Photovoltaic Electricity Production'
This paper gives the general understanding about the concept of solar Pv to battery operated vehicels whic could be as an option for day to day commuting for a shorter range of miles or kilometers
According to the graphical data from NREL ,most of the insolation occurs during peak day hours of 9am to 5pm
Practical solar collectors might be used as a method to collect light and convert it into electricity used for charging the vehicles at the parking lots of huge commercial offices, spaces etc
Pay back periods depend upon how big the parking canopy is, the larger the canopy structure lesser is the payback period
'Experimental study of a DC charging station for full electric and plug in hybrid vehicles'
This paper looks into the design, experimental prototypes of charging stations, control strategies od DC micro grid for a fast charging stations.The paper consists of experiments which might be useful to deduce methods to lower the charging times for hybrid vehicles with the support of high power converters, improved storage system technologies
'Electric vehicles charging using photovoltaic: Status and technological review'
This paper helps us to understand the Pv charging stations concept giving more emphasis on the power electronics part of the charging station such as MPPT dc–dc converter, bi-directional dc charger and bi-directional inverter. Also, the methods of charging in the Grid systems are described along with the hybrid configurations for standalone systems in PV. Detailed explanation on the power electronics equipments like Batteries, DC-DC Converter with MPPT, Bidirectional chargers, isolated chargers, Bidirectional Inverters, Isolated inverters, various charging modes have been made.Lastly, the future scope alongwith the modeling, Optimization and control has been discussed.
Two experimental Walmart stores one in Colorado and one in Texas are being compared to serve as test beds for several parameters of energy systems such as HVAC and combined Heat and Power, Refrigeration, Lighting, Renewable Energy Systems.
Looking more into the Renewable energy systems parameters, we can see that the Performance PV systems for both, Thin-film silicon and Poly crystalline silicon PV systems have been observed along with a study of Wind energy systems.
'Flexible Solar Cells'
Mario Pagliaro Dr., Rosaria Ciriminna Dr., Giovanni Palmisano Flexible Solar Cells
The paper predicts the future scope of flexible solar modules to be implemented like the present rigid surfaced modules. Discussed in the paper are the following types of flexible PV modules
The need of Flexible PV Modules
Inorganic Thin Film: a-Si modules
Inorganic Thin Film: flexible CIGS modules
Plastic Solar Cells
Organic–Inorganic Thin Films: Flexible DSSCs
'An active cooling system for photovoltaic modules'
This paper gives a detailed study about the advantages of using AC supply for charging the EVs instead of using the DC supply. The paper introduces to us the advantages of AC supply and tells us how it is better than the likes of DC supply for charging a EV. Use of onboard power converters have been introduced and methods to convert power from the existing electronics without increasing the cost of the production has been given.
'Economic and environmental impacts of a PV powered workplace parking garage charging station'
This paper is based on a paper presented by authors in IEEE energytech conference [21], but with significant expansion. This paper explains the statistical calculations for vehicle parking demands, charging demands, uncontrolled charging, examines charging algorithms on the economics and emissions associated with Solar PV Roofs and lastly presents the economics and the environmental impacts.
'Design of a solar energy centre for providing lighting and income-generating activities for off-grid rural communities in Kenya'
This paper is clasic case study on rural electrification of village in kenya to provide basic electrical facilities to the citizens like street lights, mobile charging stations, power points for smaal DC appliances etc. The paper designs an off grid PV system based on the need and problems faced by the communities, The study uses softwares like PVsyst to develop an optimum system design, also studied is the economics behind income generating activities, conduction of risk analysis of the designed system with the costs of alternative fuels such as kerosene oil etc to check that the system will remain over the Payback period.
This paper describes a patented design of a newly modified racking system for roof top as well as ground mounted solar PV system. The designed discussed in the paper claims to to reduce the existing mounting costs of the solar PV systems by reducing a number of parts in the existing mounting system which reduces the material, labour, system profile. The overall aim being to design and build a strong and firm solar mounting system which not only be light weight but rugged too with reduction in the overall costs which includes cost of material as well as installations, and which also makes less damages to the roof of the structure.
'Portable solar power system'
Glidden, S.C. and Alker, G.G., Glidden, Steven C., Alker and Guerin G., 1999. Portable solar power system. U.S. Patent 5,969,501. Portable solar power system
The paper present a new approach towards the traditional mountins systems on rooftops or grounds. The design discussed in the paper is a solar PV module that rests on the surface of a trailer, However whats fascinates the most is that, the PV Module is a foldable one that can be folded across the sides of the trailer when not in use. Also, it can mounted by a single person when intended to use. Such systems can be of great importance where there are limitation over a solid structural construction required for mounting a Solar PV system
'Increasing solar panel efficiency in a sustainable manner'
Methods to increase the efficiency of the panels have been introduced
Dust deposited on the panels lowers the efficiency, therefore water has been used to clean it
Usage of water results into cleaning of the panels hence increasing their efficiency, as well as keeping the panels cool which enhance their efficiency.
Water pumps system cost to pump the water to the panels have been found economical when compared with the overall gains
'Solar Tracking System: More Efficient Use of Solar Panels'
A small and robust tracking method has been discussed which may or may not be useful for large scale PV systems but certainly promises to increase the efficiency of the system by 30%
Light tracking devices have been made use of to orient the module in almost perpendicular direction to the angle of incidence
'A review on photovoltaic/thermal hybrid solar technology'
Detailed study of PV modules and the various factors affecting the output like Ambient temperature, Solar Irradiation, Tilt angle etc
Calculations and analysis of PV characteristics and ratings
Reasons leading to the degradation of PV Modules
'A comparison of the cost and financial returns for solar photovoltaic systems installed by businesses in different locations across the United States'
