Solar PV Tiling BIPV Review

Readers Please!![edit | edit source]

Any comments are welcome on the discussion page including additional resources/papers/links etc. Papers can be added to relevant sections if done in chronological order with all citation information and short synopsis or abstract. Thank You.

Literature Review[edit | edit source]

A Novel BIPV Reconfiguration Algorithm for Maximum Power Generation under Partial Shading^[1][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The feasibility of electricity production via solar energy in the Middle East is high due to the enormous value of solar radiation. Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are systems used to utilise the unused spaces that can be installed on the façade or roof by replacing the building’s main element. However, the main problem associated with electricity production by BIPV is partial shading on the roof, which can produce multiple hot spots and disturbances to the system if the insolation values within the whole BIPV array vary. Partial shading, in this case, is observed due to the complexly shaped roof. This paper studies the partial shading effect on one of Qatar’s most recent projects (metro stations), and models the Education City station, which is a major station. The rooftop is complex, and it has many wavy shapes that can affect the BIPV system’s performance. The station is modelled using building-information modelling (BIM) software, wherein all of the station’s models are gathered and linked using BIM software to illustrate the BIPV and indicate the solar insolation distribution on the rooftop by simulating the station’s rooftop. The system is optimised for maximum yield to determine the optimal configuration and number of modules for each string using a genetic algorithm. The outcomes from the algorithm are based on clustering the solar insolation values and then applying a genetic algorithm optimisation to indicate the optimum BIPV array layout for maximum yield.

Goal: Apply BIM to BIPV with genetic optimization to find the optimal config of the system[edit | edit source]

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• Greening building decreases CO2emisisons and create econ. savings
• BIPV generates 40% of building energy + aesthetically pleasing
• Shade losses in BIPV reviewed -> up to 35%
• Review of BIM studies
• Review of PV config optimization techniques => retained genetic algo.
• Complex building still only rooftop used
• Software used Revit for BIM
• Location: Education City Station, Al-Rayyan City, Doha, Qatar
• Power per square meter on roof -> 807 kWh/m²

Coloured BIPV Technologies: Methodological and Experimental Assessment for Architecturally Sensitive Areas^[2][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Energy flexibility in buildings is gaining momentum with the introduction of new European directives that enable buildings to manage their own energy demand and production, by storing, consuming or selling electricity according to their need. The transition towards a low-carbon energy system, through the promotion of on-site energy production and enhancement of self-consumption, can be supported by building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) technologies. This paper investigates the aesthetic and technological integration of hidden coloured PV modules in architecturally sensitive areas that seem to be the best possibility to favour a balance between conservation and energy issues. First, a multidisciplinary methodology for evaluating the aesthetic and technical integration of PV systems in architecturally sensitive area is proposed, referring to the technologies available on the market. Second, the experimental characterisation of the technical performance specific BIPV modules and their comparison with standard modules under standard weather condition are analysed, with the aim of acquiring useful data for comparing the modules’ integration properties and performance. For this purpose, new testbeds have been set up to investigate the aesthetic integration and the energy performances of innovative BIPV products. The paper describes the analyses carried out to define the final configuration of these experimental testbeds. Finally, the experimental characterisation at standard test conditions of two coloured BIPV modules is presented and the experimental design for the outdoor testing is outlined.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• Study relation b/w aesthetic and technichal aspects of BIPV
• Analyzed 3 integration concepts: aesthetic, energy, and technology

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• Building account for 40% energy consumption in Europe + 36% CO2 emisisons
• EU aims for 32% RE penetration by 2030
• BIPV support energy transition: consumers become prosumers -> policy exist in that direction
• Urban constraints -> hinders traditional GPV
• BIPV limited by aesthetics -> only blue or black
• Research looking into colored PV => Appropriate for architecturally sensitive areas
• Improvement in BIPV: low-rate reflection, mimetic appearance, compact shape and geometric flexibility
• Definition of BIPV involves concept of multifunctionality + aesthetic integration
• Evidence for PV in architecturally sensitive buildings -> ref provided
• "Hidden coloured PV modules, semi-transparent PV-active layers and/or textured PV modules seem very promising for the integration in heritage and architecturally sensitive areas"
• Coated solar cells efficiency increasing -> 18% from LOF Solar
• Proposed a methodology for PV selection for sensitive building
• BIPV can shift energy paradigm for building

Myth or gold? The power of aesthetics in the adoption of building integrated photovoltaics (BIPVs)^[3][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

BIPV has gained a lot of attention in the solar world especially in recent times as the push for Net Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB) and concerns about landscape aesthetics increases. Aesthetics plays a critical role in the adoption of BIPVs as it is one of the fundamental components architects and home owners look out for. This paper discusses the primacy of aesthetics by using the elements and principles of design as guide in BIPV applications. Essential elements of design such as colour, shape, and texture have been discussed. Principles of design such as variety, balance, rhythm, contrast and proportion have also been discussed as useful tools in BIPV adoption by home owners and architects. It is emphasised that the essence of BIPV is to introduce ‘beauty’ in Photovoltaic application and the earlier aesthetic is treated as ‘Gold’ and given primacy, the better for BIPV adoption. This paper identifies the basic elements and principles of design as the “building blocks” of BIPV design, application and adoption. Finally, it is argued that aesthetics plays a cardinal role in consumer purchasing decision. This paper offers an exceptional design perspective to BIPV application as various attempts have been made by several researchers to address the issue of aesthetics in BIPVs.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• Give insight on “the road to achieving aesthetics" in BIPV

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• BIPV is supported by concerns over PV land occupation
• Land occupation example -> farmers outcry -> ref provided
• Defines BIPV and differences b/ BIPV and BAPV
• Aesthetics not always cancels efficiency -> ref provided
• Aesthetics as a competitve driver for BIPV adoption

Analysing the role of roof mounted BIPV system optimization on decreasing the effect of duck curve in Perth, Western Australia: An experimental case study^[4][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

This paper optimizes roof shape and associated Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) mounting strategies based on the newly announced feed-in tariff pricing range in Western Australia to confirm hypothesised benefits and potential influence on grid consumption reduction. Through analysis of a residential building in Perth, the study looks at: the current status of consumption, solar production, and energy balance. An Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) approach is deployed to optimize roof shape for each month and one whole year, with the aim of maximizing financial return by selling extra produced power to the grid. We have found that the optimized form has a tilt angle of 35.9° from horizontal and an azimuth angle of 47° toward the northwest. To compare the effectiveness of the newly announced tariff pricing, an analysis of economic benefits has been carried out comparing the ability of base case and optimized roof shapes to balance production and consumption surpluses and deficits. The outcome exemplifies the positive effect of an optimized roof shape that could supply 16% higher solar production than the base case shape. The current work provides practical guidelines for engineers, architects and researchers to design more suitably built environments.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• Optimization of BIPV depending on feed-in-tariff unsinf evolutionary algorithm

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• minimize CO2 emissions and Global warming -> decrease building energy
• 50% of future PV capacity on buildings (IEA) -> ref provided
• Roof are the most intuitive place for PV installation -> more space on roof , high irradiation, no view blocking
• Parameters affecting BiPV performance: geometry, location, type of building, solar irradiation, temp, num cells, PV efficiency, tilt, azimuth
• Use of parametric architecture
• BIPV optimal angle can be different than GPV for economic benefits
• Optimized BIPV in Perth, Australia economic return 16.2% higher than conventional PV

A simplified skyline-based method for estimating the annual solar energy potential in urban environments^[5][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Architects, engineers and urban planners have today at their disposal several tools for simulating the energy yield of photovoltaic systems. These tools are based on mathematical models that perform repetitive calculations to determine the annual irradiation received by solar panels; hence when photovoltaic systems are installed in complex urban environments, the simulations become highly computationally demanding. Here we present a simplified and yet accurate model for the direct calculation of the annual irradiation and energy yield of photovoltaic systems in urban environments. Our model is based on the correlation between the solar radiation components and the shape of the skyline profile. We show how calculations can be simplified by quantifying the skyline using two indicators: the sky view factor and the sun coverage factor. Model performance is evaluated in different climates using measured data from different photovoltaic systems. Results indicate that the proposed model significantly reduces the required computation time while preserving a high estimation accuracy.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• Proposed new model to estimate solar energy method in urban areas

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• Increase relevance of PV in urban areas
• Every surface in cities will become potential for PV => need to find accurate models for PV model
• Review of irradiation estimation papers
• Use of 2 indicators: sky view factor and sun coverage factor => annual irradiation estimation
• Example of e-bike charging station
• Model reduce computation time with error < 10%

High resolution global spatiotemporal assessment of rooftop solar photovoltaics potential for renewable electricity generation^[6][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Rooftop solar photovoltaics currently account for 40% of the global solar photovoltaics installed capacity and one-fourth of the total renewable capacity additions in 2018. Yet, only limited information is available on its global potential and associated costs at a high spatiotemporal resolution. Here, we present a high-resolution global assessment of rooftop solar photovoltaics potential using big data, machine learning and geospatial analysis. We analyse 130 million km2 of global land surface area to demarcate 0.2 million km2 of rooftop area, which together represent 27 PWh yr−1 of electricity generation potential for costs between 40–280 $ MWh−1. Out of this, 10 PWh yr−1 can be realised below 100 $ MWh−1. The global potential is predominantly spread between Asia (47%), North America (20%) and Europe (13%). The cost of attaining the potential is lowest in India (66 $ MWh−1) and China (68 $ MWh−1), with USA (238 $ MWh−1) and UK (251 $ MWh−1) representing some of the costliest countries.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• developing a hybrid framework that integrates “Top-down” and “Bottom-up” methods using a ML model to provide a high-resolution global assessment of rooftop solar PV technical potential at a monthly temporal resolution

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• RTSPV to provide 40% of the global PV-energy by 2050
• RTSPV important for advancement of SDG7
• Review of PV potential evaluation methods
• Use of Fishnet Grid for mapping
• Sampling more than 300 million inidvidual buildings + 16million km road
• Combination of ArcGIS Pro and Google Earth Engine
• Focused only on rooftop - all considered flat and sun-facing
• 20% of global RTSPV in high-density areas

Challenges resulting from urban density and climate change for the EU energy transition^[7][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Dense urban morphologies further amplify extreme climate events due to the urban heat island phenomenon, rendering cities more vulnerable to extreme climate events. Here we develop a modelling framework using multi-scale climate and energy system models to assess the compound impact of future climate variations and urban densification on renewable energy integration for 18 European cities. We observe a marked change in wind speed and temperature due to the aforementioned compound impact, resulting in a notable increase in both peak and annual energy demand. Therefore, an additional cost of 20‒60% will be needed during the energy transition (without technology innovation in building) to guarantee climate resilience. Failure to consider extreme climate events will lower power supply reliability by up to 30%. Energy infrastructure in dense urban areas of southern Europe is more vulnerable to the compound impact, necessitating flexibility improvements at the design phase when improving renewable penetration levels.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• introduce a modelling platform linking climate, building simulation and energy system models to enable the simulation and evaluation of the energy transition of cities, ensuring urban resilience to future climate variation and urban densification

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• cities contribute to GDP
• cities responsible of 70% global anthropogenic CO2 emissions => increase in climate change => increase extreme weather events => increase mortality rate in cities
• Economic damage of cc in cities -> USD8trillions in 2010
• Extreme weather events incr. building energy demand (400%)
• high rise building create urban heat island
• Influence of urban density on heating and cooling demand
• EU case study
• include synergy b/w urban density and cc in energy forecasting during urban planning and grid reliability studies
• important to invest in the climate resilience of energy infrastructure while also improving sustainability, if the present economic growth can be sustained.
• Use of urban climate and microclimate models (UCM)

Maximum Power Point Tracking for Cascaded PV-Converter Modules Using Two-Stage Particle Swarm Optimization^[8][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The paper presents a novel two-stage particle swarm optimization (PSO) for the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control of a PV system consisting of cascaded PV-converter modules, under partial shading conditions (PSCs). In this scheme, the grouping method of the shuffled frog leaping algorithm (SFLA) is incorporated with the basic PSO algorithm, ensuring fast and accurate searching of the global extremum. An adaptive speed factor is also introduced to improve its convergence speed. A PWM algorithm enabling permuted switching of the PV sources is applied. The method enables this PV system to achieve the maximum power generation for any number of PV and converter modules. Simulation studies of the proposed MPPT scheme are performed on a system having two chained PV buck-converter modules and a dc-ac H-bridge connected at its terminals for supplying an AC load. The results show that this type of PV system allows each module to achieve the maximum power generation according its illumination level without affecting the others, and the proposed new control method gives significantly higher power output compared with the conventional P&O and PSO methods.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• presents a new control scheme for a PV system comprising a chain of integrated PV step-down dc-dc converter modules.
• PSO + SFLA

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• Rsvieweed shading challenges in PV systems
• Reviewed MPPT control algorithms
• Described principles of PSO
• TSPSO performed better than PSO and P&O (13% and 27.5%)

Dynamic photovoltaic building envelopes for adaptive energy and comfort management^[9][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Current efforts to improve building envelopes mostly focus on reducing energy demand by static measures such as insulation, selective glazing and shading. The resulting envelopes are limited in adapting to weather conditions or occupants’ needs and leave vast potentials for energy savings, onsite energy generation and improvement of occupant comfort untapped. In this work, we report on a dynamic building envelope that utilizes lightweight modules based on a hybrid hard/soft-material actuator to actively modulate solar radiation for local energy generation, passive heating, shading and daylight penetration. We describe two envelope prototypes and demonstrate autonomous solar tracking in real weather conditions. The dynamic photovoltaic envelope achieves an increase of up to 50% in electricity gains as compared to a static photovoltaic envelope. We assess energy savings potentials for three locations, six construction periods and two building use types. The envelope is most effective in temperate and arid climates, in which, for the cases analyzed, it can provide up to 115% of the net energy demand of an office room.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• report on a type of dynamic building envelope that utilizes soft-robotic solar trackers to actively modulate solar radiation for energy generation, passive heating, shading and daylight penetration at a high spatio-temporal resolution

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• Building sector responsible for 25% GHG emissions for primary energy consumption
• Building energy saving potential-> 50-90%
• Building envelope essential for consumption reduction -> dynamic envelopes
• Dynamic envelopes -> high cost of actuation system
• 28-50% more energy produced due to tracking
• 3% of energy produced consumed by tracker
• Each panel individually controlled
• Onsite electricity prod. better than vertical fixed
• Energy demand decreased by 37 - 73% with PV + 6 - 19 % with adaptive tracking - exemplary room
• Benefits in temperate and arid climate higher
• 86 - 89% energy demand is covered -> residential space
• 115% covered -> office room
• retrofit -> reduction by 45 (office) and 88% (residential)

Carbon reduction technology pathways for existing buildings in eight cities^[10][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

We work with policymakers in eight cities worldwide to identify technology pathways toward their near- and long-term carbon emissions reduction targets for existing buildings. Based on policymakers’ interests, we define city-specific shallow and deep retrofitting packages along with onsite photovoltaic generation potential. Without further grid decarbonization measures, stock-wide implementation of these retrofits in the investigated neighborhoods reduces energy use and carbon emissions by up to 66% and 84%, respectively, helping Braga, Dublin, Florianopolis, Middlebury, and Singapore to meet their 2030 goals. With projected grid decarbonization, Florianopolis and Singapore will reach their 2050 goals. The remaining emissions stem from municipalities not planning to electrify heating and/or domestic hot water use. Different climates and construction practices lead to varying retrofit packages, suggesting that comparable technology pathway analyses should be conducted for municipalities worldwide. Twenty months after the project ended, seven cities have implemented policy measures or expanded the analysis across their building stock.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• Focus on technology pathways to reduce annual carbon emissions in existing buildings based on retrofitting measures and onsite rooftop photovoltaics (PV).

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• 50% world pop in cities -> 75%GDP
• City pop x2 by 2050
• Cities well position to mitigate C.C. -> both the cause and solution
• Clear long term goals of IPCC but pathway for building emission reduction unclear
• Need for all new building to be net-0 carbon
• onsite electricity prediction from PV from full rooftop utilization
• study focused only on existing building

Integrated thinking for photovoltaics in buildings^[11][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Recent developments in photovoltaic technologies enable stimulating architectural integration into building façades and rooftops. Upcoming policies and a better coordination of all stakeholders will transform how we approach building-integrated photovoltaics and should lead to strong deployment.

Goal[edit | edit source]

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

The energy performance of building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) by determination of optimal building envelope^[12][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Building form and envelope surfaces play a significant role in energy performance assessment and the generated energy potential of the building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) concept in early-stage design. To increase the energy efficiency level, form factor (FF) is proposed as a helpful tool that provides a strong relationship between the exposed surface areas and the treated floor area (TFA). This research aims to develop a methodology for a parametric study to determine the related balance between the TFA and the required BIPV area in the form enclosure to meet specific primary energy demand (SPED) according to the international Passive House standard (PHS). Therefore, various form types, including square, rectangle, L, and T shapes, derived from four modular cubes, are classified based on the same FF. Optimal form selection per group is conducted through BIPV potential evaluation for the exposed surfaces in six different orientations separately. Thereafter, the BIPV efficiency level for the optimized forms is examined using its utilization factor and coverage index scenarios based on the façade and roof combination priorities. The results indicate that the generated energy sufficiency is affected by the form configuration and its orientation. Additionally, the optimal BIPV-based FF value of 0.71 implies the priority of roof-based scenarios for less BIPV utilization. Finally, the correlation value for the BIPV coverage index relative to the total envelope for the optimal forms and orientation is higher than 0.92, which can be extended to other forms in different locations as an assessment model.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• establish the relationship between the FF and the performance of PV panels by means of wellorganized building forms with the same volume, established in various configurations, and analyzed in different orientations with different C, to meet annual energy demand based on the international Passive House standard (PHS)

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• Buildings worldwide -> 40% energy consumption and CO2 emissions
• Reviewed studies on compactness (C), which is its surface area-to-volume ratio, and form factor (FF), which constitutes the strong relationship between the exposed surface areas and the treated floor areas (TFAs) in buildings
• BIPV definition and advantages
• BIPV could cover 14.5 - 58% of energy building
• Studied building: 23 forms types from 4 reference cubes
• Specific Total Primary Energy Demand (SPED) used as metric to find best orientation
• No one facade could match the SPED -> need combination of facade

Performance of BIPV and BAPV installations in Norway^[13][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The research community and stakeholders in the building sector seek information on the performance and reliability of PV systems in the built environment and the best solutions for maximum energy production. This paper presents results from collected information on a representative selection of existing building integrated (BIPV) and building applied (BAPV) photovoltaic systems in Norway. The work is part of a national project that aims at developing robust BIPV-solutions suitable for a Norwegian climate. The project also aims at identifying the main building-technical and architectural integration challenges for BIPV. A questionnaire has been developed to interview key personnel involved in the design, installation and operational phases, and a database is under development to build a wider knowledge base for the expected performances of different system types and geographical locations. Performance is evaluated in terms of energy production, specific yield, and performance ratio (PR) in cases where irradiation data is available. Data collected so far indicate a relatively large spread in annual specific yield with typical values in the 700-900 kWh/kWp range. A well-functioning system without significant shading may achieve PR above 0.85, in agreement with similar findings for Europe. Five selected cases are presented in more detail. The lessons learned provide useful input for the development of new guidelines and system requirements for BIPV in a nordic climate.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• Presents results from collected information on performance characteristics and operational experiences for a representative selection of existing BIPV and BAPV systems in Norway.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• BIPV preferred locations listed
• Flat roof challenging because of snowfall and soiling
• Specific Yield range 700-900 kWh/kWp
• Oseana Arts and Cultural Centre, Bergen -> interesting shape building
• Full building was not covered

Generating proper building envelopes for photovoltaics integration with shape grammar theory^[14][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Building integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) receives growing attentions from both architectural and energy saving perspectives. Large commercial building envelopes can be utilized due to their great potential of reducing building energy consumption and increasing PV integration impact, especially in climate zones with rich solar resources. Most current studies have been focused on predicting electricity generation of BIPV systems with existing envelope geometries, while few studies have discussed the generation of proper envelope shapes for PV integration due to the challenge of integrating architecture and engineering. This paper introduces a novel optimization method for BIPV shape development based on the shape grammar theory. The method reforms given building shapes/envelopes to produce a set of better BIPV shape alternatives, as well as determines the best placement and matching BIPV systems for the optimized envelopes. The main set of criteria considered during the generation and optimization process include PV power generation, PV economic impact and building energy consumption. Architectural preferences are included in generating preferred design alternatives, such as view consideration and shape direction. Commercial buildings in Egypt are used to demonstrate and validate the applications of the developed method and tool. The method and tool can help designers in achieving an optimal design of building envelope that is most suitable for maximizing PV integration.

Goal[edit | edit source]

• Presents an optimization methodology that can generate better energy-based alternatives of building envelope shape using diverse criteria for a given building design.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

• Review of building envelope optimization
• Use shape grammar theory for optmization
• Flowchart of the optimization process
• Proposed a tool for optimization of building shape -> case study commercial buildings in Egypt
• Designed to optimize the building not to find performance of existing building
• Found that tool => BIPV energy consumption reduction (3.1 - 20.5%)

Design of optimal building envelopes with integrated photovoltaics^[15][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) receives growing attentions due to both architectural and engineering favorability. Large commercial building envelopes present a great potential of utilizing solar radiation, especially in climate zones with rich solar resources. Most current studies have been focused on predicting and optimizing power generation of BIPV on designed envelope systems, which leaves limited room for performance improvement of BIPV. This study introduces a framework of an optimization method that formulates the best building envelope shapes and the most matching BIPV systems. A set of criteria are established to determine the best alternatives of envelope variations, upon which the power generation and economic impact of different BIPV systems are evaluated and compared. The proposed optimization process was demonstrated using a general commercial building design application in Egypt. The developed tool can help designers in achieving an optimized building envelope that is most suitable for PV integration.

Goal[edit | edit source]

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

Compromises between form and function in grid-connected, building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) at low-latitude sites^[16][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The integration of photovoltaic (PV) modules on building façades and rooftops is an ideal application of solar electricity generators in the urban environment. Maximum annual performance of grid-connected PV is usually obtained with modules tilted at an angle equal to the site latitude, facing the equator. The performance of PV systems not tilted and oriented ideally can drop considerably, depending on site latitude. With grid parity – when the cost of solar electricity becomes competitive with conventional electricity – expected in many countries in the present decade, a more widespread application of PV on buildings is expected, and in this context the main goal of this paper is to demonstrate that good compromises between form and function are possible. In this work we compare the annual energy generation of a curved BIPV system installed as a car port rooftop, with an ideally-oriented and tilted, flat BIPV system installed as a building’s rooftop cover at a low-latitude site (27°S). For the one-year period analysed, the curved-shape BIPV system annual yield was 12% lower than that of the reference BIPV system, and during the summer months (November to February), the curved BIPV installation presented a higher energy yield than the latitude-tilted generator. With these results we show that a good compromise can be reached between form and function in BIPV systems.

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