Solar PV Land Use - A Review

Readers Please!![edit | edit source]

Any comments are welcome on the discussion page including additional resources/papers/links etc. Papers can be added to relevant sections if done in chronological order with all citation information and short synopsis or abstract. Thank You.

Background[edit | edit source]

Literature Review[edit | edit source]

The Potential Land Requirements and Related Land Use Change Emissions of Solar Energy^[1][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Although the transition to renewable energies will intensify the global competition for land, the potential impacts driven by solar energy remain unexplored. In this work, the potential solar land requirements and related land use change emissions are computed for the EU, India, Japan and South Korea. A novel method is developed within an integrated assessment model which links socioeconomic, energy, land and climate systems. At 25–80% penetration in the electricity mix of those regions by 2050, we find that solar energy may occupy 0.5–5% of total land. The resulting land cover changes, including indirect effects, will likely cause a net release of carbon ranging from 0 to 50 gCO2/kWh, depending on the region, scale of expansion, solar technology efficiency and land management practices in solar parks. Hence, a coordinated planning and regulation of new solar energy infrastructures should be enforced to avoid a significant increase in their life cycle emissions through terrestrial carbon losses.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Renewables energy density < fossils -> other ref provided
   • Transition from fossils to renewables intensify land competition -> other refs provided
   • PV and CSP land use efficiency lower than previous estimated -> other refs provided
   • Constraints of utility scaled solar energy (USSE):
     • resource
     • geographical + regulatory: human communities, biodiversity, agriculture, forestry, carbon cycling
   • Goal: quantifying potential land occupation of PV installed up to 2050 in EU, India, Japan + South Korea
2. Results
   • Solar penetration range: 25 to 80 %
     • EU: 0.5 to 2.8 % land occupation
     • India: 0.3 to 1.4 % land occupation
     • Japan + South Korea: 1.5 to 5.2 % land occupation
   • Land cover change:
     • displacement in existing agricultural land + forest coverage
     • no displacement in unmanaged land
     • Initial displacement caused unmanaged land to be used (locally and globally) -> displacement of crops to lower productivity areas
     • Effect varies by region
3. Discussion
   • High share of solar -> significant domestic land
   • Solar competes with:
     • cropland + managed forest -> domestic level
     • unmanaged forests -> globally
   • Land cover changes => increase in GHG emissions + biodiversity loss
   • If solarland seeded (herbs + pastures) => less emissions or even negative emissions possible
   • No agrivoltaics systems included
4. Methods: Integrated Assessment Modelling

Assessing land use and potential conflict in solar and onshore wind energy in Japan^[2][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

This study identified areas suitable for photovoltaic (PV) and onshore wind systems, with few or no competing land uses. All contiguous land in Japan was classified into 15 independent land-use types according to their regulation level. Four types were determined as soft-restriction areas suitable for development: devastated farmland, grassland, bareland, and scrubland. Legally prohibited land in nature reserves was then excluded from these areas. The remaining area was deemed available for both renewable energy systems. Analysis by geographic information systems (GIS) revealed that the total area of land available for PV and wind turbine development is 3,428 km2 or 0.9% of all contiguous land in Japan. In 72% of this area, these systems may have to compete with other development projects, including each other. Considering factors such as electricity demand and the slope of the land, the installation of onshore wind turbines in areas of competing development is shown to be important. If an onshore wind capacity of 25 GW was to be installed in areas with competing development and a PV capacity of 64 GW in the non-competing areas, it would result in 130.2 TWh/year, which represents 15% of the total annual electricity demand of Japan in 2018.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Possibility for Japan meet Paris Agreement for 2050 if cost of PV and wind continue to fall
   • Increase in PV capacity => negative impact on wild life
   • Install PV in areas with few or no competing uses
   • Previous studies not considered land conflicts in Japan (PV vs Wind; PV vs protected land etc.)
   • Goal: using GIS to estimate and visualize the total land area available for PV and onshore wind energy generation
2. Results
   • Provides data on land area available for PV and wind and conflicting surface area that PV and wind face
   • PV competes with wind turbine in 72% of available land
3. Discussion
   • Sloped landscape hinders PV deployment -> example provided
   • PV is more effective than wind turbine in area efficiency (2x for Japan)
   • Land-use conflicts cannot be ignored in PV assessment
4. Methods:
   • GIS-based approach to estimate available area based on a simplified BMVI method
   • Land is classified in different categories in Japan => some acceptable for PV, some not
   • Imposition of LCA on PV farm => more difficult to install PV onshore

Solar Energy Data Analytics: PV Deployment and Land Use^[3][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

EU targets for sustainable development call for strong changes in the current energy systems as well as committed protection of environmental resources. This target conflicts if a policy is not going to promote the compatible solutions to both the issues. This is the case of the additional renewable energy sources to be exploited for increasing the share in the electricity mix and in the gross final energy consumption. Solar energy is, currently, the cheapest solution in Southern European Countries, like Italy. In this paper, thanks to the availability of three open databases provided by National Institutions, the authors compared the historic trends and policy scenarios for soil consumption, electricity consumption, and renewable electricity production to check correlations. The provincial scale was chosen as resolution of the analysis. The deviations from the policy scenarios was then addressed to identify the demand for policy recommendations and pathways to promote in order to achieve the target for renewable electricity share as well as the reduction in soli consumption trend in 2030. The role of renewables integrated in the existing contexts, such as building integrated photovoltaics, is considered a key driver for solving this issue.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Reducing the land consumption is the main target in order to mitigate the environmental and landscaping impacts as well as the citizens’ quality of life, such as level of pollution
   • PV has a low impact if integrated in existing buildings or being part of new ones not entailing further land use -> ref provided
   • Deployment of renewable energy plants sees obstacles in the local community and in legislation when the large scale occurs -> ref provided
   • Goal: Investigation of the correlation among the renewable power plants’ installation and land use in order to provide a more informed framework and a set of recommendations
2. Results and Discussion
   • Provide values for land consumption, electricity consumption, and electricity generation for different provinces
   • 4.7% of the Italian provinces call for an additional area of more than 30% of the already consumed soil required -> examples provided
   • If land requirement exceeds 30% of consumed soil, target by 2030 difficult, with only land-based PV
   • Interventions for increasing decarbonization require infrastructures and systems with potential further environmental impacts.
   • Reinforce the need for more efficient soil consumption
3. Methods
   • Data analysis using: admin surfaces, pop, land consumption, electricity consumption, and renewable electricity production data
   • Soil consumption is defined as a variation from a non-artificial cover (unused soil) to an artificial ground cover (consumed soil) -> ref provided
   • EU targets elimination of net land consumption by 2050
   • Hints at laws to protect land from artificial coverage in Italy
   • Starting point of study: 2012 - 2017 -> soil consumption increase from 22,814 to 23,063 km² (7.65 % of total nat. territory)

Strategic land use analysis for solar energy development in New York State^[4][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

This study investigates the spatial characteristics of existing utility-scale solar energy (USSE) development in New York State (NYS) and assesses the land-suitability for the future development of USSE needed to achieve the State’s renewable energy goals using GIS-MCDA techniques. Slope, proximity to electric substations, protected lands, and soil quality were used as criteria to develop land suitability scenarios. 40% of present USSE capacity has been developed on agricultural lands, and 84% of identified land suitable for future USSE development (∼140 GW potential) is agricultural. The USSE potential on non-agricultural land is 22.5 GW – just sufficient to accommodate the development of 21.6 GW, which is the estimated USSE capacity that will be required to achieve NYS’s 2030 goal of 70% renewable electricity. Thus, agricultural lands will be the prime target for future USSE development. Exploring the state-specific synergies for solar-agriculture colocation, preventing the spatially-concentrated development of USSE, and incentivizing the use of unproductive agricultural lands will help mitigate negative impacts of USSE development on agricultural lands.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • New York State (NYS) decarbonization objectives: 100% clean electricity source by 2040 (70% by 2030); total decarbonization of economy by 2050
   • Need of additional RE capacity to reach 2030 goals
   • Growth of PV (>5x in past 5 years) => land conflicts in NYS: PV vs agricultural land (92% of total surface); PV vs forests
   • Goal: investigation of the spatial features of USSE development in NYS; informing solar energy development policies and decision-making from a land-use perspective to support the future development of USSE for transition to sustainable energy.
2. Literature Review
   • Exclusion criteria of land for PV: legal restrictions, protected lands, developed areas, open water, and higher slope surfaces -> ref provided
   • Suitability criteria of land for PV: solar irradiation, distance to electric infrastructure, slope, and land cover -> ref provided
3. Results and Discussion
   • Agricultural land preferred for USSE deployment -> could impact agro-economy of the state
   • Huge conflict between PV and farmland: farmland good for PV farm
   • 41% of existing USSE are in agricultural land
   • 85% of good suitable land for PV is agricultural land
   • 82% of medium suitable land for PV is agricultural land
   • Potential solutions in agrivoltaics (studies cited)
   • Total available land in NYS not enough to reach 2030 goals or 2050 goals
   • USSE could require significant amount of land
4. Methods
   • GIS-MCDA (geographic information systems and multi-criteria decision analysis)
   • Analysis performed in 7 steps
   • USSE -> PV plants > 1MW -> ref provided (IEA)

Land Conversion for Solar Facilities and Urban Sprawl in Southwest Deserts Causes Different Amounts of Habitat Loss for Ashmeadiella Bees^[5][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Land conversion for human use poses one of the greatest threats to terrestrial ecosystems and causes habitat loss for a myriad of species. The development of large solar energy facilities and urban sprawl are converting wild lands in the Southwest deserts of the USA for human use and resulting in habitat loss for desert species. This is in part due to the Southwest deserts being identified as having high renewable energy potential while urban areas expand into areas supporting high biodiversity. Previous studies have quantified development within some of these biodiversity hotspots, but none have investigated direct species-specific habitat loss for different species of pollinators. Native bees are poorly studied, and therefore it is difficult to know how much habitat has been lost. We quantified the amount of land conversion occurring between 2010 and 2015 in Clark County, NV, Mojave County, AZ, and San Bernardino County, CA to assess direct loss of potential-habitat for species in the Southwest deserts. Using Satellite images, we quantified the direct habitat loss to solar facilities and estimated other land conversion due to urban sprawl using USDA land cover data. We created eco-niche models in MaxENT for ten Ashmeadiella bees, to estimate the amount of direct, potential-habitat loss caused by solar development and urban expansion. Our data suggest species are not equally affected by land conversion in the Southwest deserts and direct, potential-habitat loss to urban sprawl is much greater than the loss due to solar facilities. Furthermore, our data show each species incurs different amounts of habitat loss to both solar development and urban expansion as well as between counties. These results should assist in pollinator conservation program development by illustrating land conversion can vary between local governments and pollinator species.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Land conversion including urban sprawl, top soil and vegetation removal, and agricultural production cause habitat loss
   • Utility scale RE promoted to meet California 50% RE target 2030 -> ref provided
   • Energy production joins activities causing habitat degradation, habitat fragmentation, and habitat loss in the Southwest deserts
   • Goal: quantification and comparison of the amount of land conversion for solar energy and urban sprawl occurring in three contiguous counties; comparison of how much potential habitat is lost for ten Ashmeadiella species and clarification of how land conversion in these deserts can affect some species more than others.
2. Results and Discussion
   • PV caused less habitat loss for bees as compared to urban sprawl
   • Even lower, PV expansion could compete with desert species
   • PV should be integrated into existing structures instead of clearing new land -> reducing habitat loss
3. Methods
   • ARCMap modelling
   • Comparison of habitat losses due to PV vs urban sprawl
     

Assessing vulnerabilities and limits in the transition to renewable energies: Land requirements under 100% solar energy scenarios^[6][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The transition to renewable energies will intensify the global competition for land. Nevertheless, most analyses to date have concluded that land will not pose significant constraints on this transition. Here, we estimate the land-use requirements to supply all currently consumed electricity and final energy with domestic solar energy for 40 countries considering two key issues that are usually not taken into account: (1) the need to cope with the variability of the solar resource, and (2) the real land occupation of solar technologies. We focus on solar since it has the highest power density and biophysical potential among renewables. The exercise performed shows that for many advanced capitalist economies the land requirements to cover their current electricity consumption would be substantial, the situation being especially challenging for those located in northern latitudes with high population densities and high electricity consumption per capita. Assessing the implications in terms of land availability (i.e., land not already used for human activities), the list of vulnerable countries enlarges substantially (the EU-27 requiring around 50% of its available land), few advanced capitalist economies requiring low shares of the estimated available land. Replication of the exercise to explore the land-use requirements associated with a transition to a 100% solar powered economy indicates this transition may be physically unfeasible for countries such as Japan and most of the EU-27 member states. Their vulnerability is aggravated when accounting for the electricity and final energy footprint, i.e., the net embodied energy in international trade. If current dynamics continue, emerging countries such as India might reach a similar situation in the future. Overall, our results indicate that the transition to renewable energies maintaining the current levels of energy consumption has the potential to create new vulnerabilities and/or reinforce existing ones in terms of energy and food security and biodiversity conservation.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Government are promoting RES to improve energy security and limit CC
   • RES have low density => more land intensive -> range provided
   • PV tend to monopolize land
   • Dedication of land to produce energy compete with human needs: PV vs food; PV vs fiber; PV vs infrastructure
   • RES could aggravate vulnerabilities
   • Goal: estimating a conservative, lower bound for the land-use requirements to supply all current consumed electricity and final energy domestically with solar energy for 40 countries, devoting special attention to uncertainties such as future efficiency improvements.
   • Past studies have not considered two key issues when estimating PV land requirements: 1) intermittence and seasonal variety of PV; 2) PV land occupation 5-10x higher than ideal conditions -> ref provided
   • "In a world that is renewable-powered, the land area required to maintain today's British energy consumption would have to be similar to the area of Britain. The same goes for Germany, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Belgium and the Netherlands” -> MacKay ref provided
2. Results
   • conventional PV in urbanized area more challenging than expected: irregular building sizes, shading -> ref provided
   • PV competes with solar other tech in urban areas: PV vs solar thermal
   • Found higher land use compared to older studies -> examples provided
   • Some countries needs more land than the have for 100% PV (up to 2x total surface)
3. Discussion
   • Provided percentage values of land occupation for under 100% PV in different countries
4. Methods
   • Lit Review
   • Multi-regional input-output model: combines electricity use and electricity footprint
   • Solar Power Density at country level using Castro and Smil approach -> ref provided
   • Overcapacity and storage requirements due to short-term and seasonal variations
   • PV potential on buildings and in urban areas

Analysis of land availability for utility-scale power plants and assessment of solar photovoltaic development in the state of Arizona, USA^[7][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Solar photovoltaic (PV) can help meet the growing demand for clean electricity in Arizona. This paper answers where solar PV development has taken place in Arizona, how much suitable land is available for utility-scale PV development, and how future land cover changes can affect the availability of this suitable land. PV development suitability scores are calculated for the land across Arizona based on topography, location, solar resource and public opinion factors. Ground truthing is used to identify the scenario which best explains Arizona's PV power plant developments from several decision-making scenarios. Less than two percent of Arizona's land is considered Excellent for PV development. Most of this land is private land or owned by state trust. If the available suitable land is fully developed with solar PV, Arizona has the potential to become a regional energy hub. However, in the next few decades suitable areas for solar PV generation can get rapidly depleted due to conflict with growing urban areas. If the suitable land for PV generation is not set-aside, Arizona would then have to depend on less suitable lands, look for multi-purpose land use options and distributed PV deployments to meet its future energy need.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Coal is being decommissioned in Arizona due to tightening emissions standards and RE competitive prices
   • Land area suitable for PV varies based on location -> ref provided
   • Public opinion impacts suitability of land for PV -> ref provided
   • Goal: identifying the least conflicted solar PV development areas in Arizona which can inform future policies directed towards sustainable land use for clean energy
2. Results and Discussion
   • Amount of PV land to shrink as urban land expands in some cities in Arizona
   • As Arizona rapidly urbanizes, a conflict is expected between urban and solar PV development.
3. Methods
   • GIS MCA -> 2-step approach with public opinion factor included
   • Sloped land usually not suitable for PV -> values and ref provided
   • AHP for weighting results

[url Title]^[8][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Goal:
2. Results
3. Discussion
4. Methods

Potential Solutions To Land Use Challenge[edit | edit source]

On Land: Agrivoltaics[edit | edit source]

On Water: Floating PV (Floatovoltaics / Aquavoltaics)[edit | edit source]

Thermal and electrical performance of solar floating PV system compared to on-ground PV system-an experimental investigation^[9][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Floating Photovoltaic (FPV) is a relatively new concept for producing clean green energy. This study presents the results of an experimental investigation of a small-scale FPV system. The goal is to evaluate and compare the thermal and electrical performances of mono and polycrystalline photovoltaic modules used in FPV with those of On Ground PV (OPV) systems with a similar nominal capacity. To accomplish this, a test bench consisting of an FPV and an OPV system has been established. The results show that when the water body is partially covered with a Floating PV system, water evaporation is reduced by 17%. And it is reduced by around 28% when fully covered. It was also found that water bodies provide an adequate cooling effect. Lowering the front temperature of Floating PV modules by 2–4% and the back temperature by 5–11% compared to similar On-ground PV modules. Thermal imaging revealed that at 0 degrees of tilt, the front temperatures of the modules are uniform. Still, as the tilt increases, a temperature gradient is observed between the bottom and middle parts of the modules. In addition, an experimental test was performed to compare the power generation of Floating PV at varying tilt angles. The test results show that the Floating PV system produces the most energy when installed at the annual optimal tilt angle. As a result, for FPV, adjusting the Photovoltaic panels to their optimized tilt angle is also recommended. While Floating PV system produces 20–28% more energy than the on-ground PV system at 0°as compared to the optimal tilt angle.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Main constraint of PV -> land occupation -> ref and values given
   • Densely populated country, land better use for other purposes -> ref provided
   • Cost of water-based PV comparable to land-based PV
   • First FPV: Aichi Japan -> ref provided
   • FPV advantages -> refs provided
   • 1° increase in PV => 0.25 - 0.45% decrease in power -> ref provided
   • FPV percent increase depends on tech, location, microclimate -> ref provided
   • List of past studies in FPV -> refs provided (could be useful in lit review)
   • Goal: create a small-scale floating PV test bench for electrical and thermal performance
2. Results and Discussion
   • 17% evaporation reduction when partially covered and 28% when fully covered compared to open pond
   • water temperature = air temperature in open pond
   • water temperature decreased 4-5°C when partially covered and 10-11°C when fully covered
   • water reduction due to wind speed
   • ambient temperature above PV lower
   • PV performance adversely affected by humidity
   • 2-4­°C difference between front of OPV and FPV
   • 10-11°C difference between back of OPV and FPV
   • Table showing temperature measures
   • PV receives uniform cooling when tilt is 0°
   • modules at 0° performed better than modules at 15°
   • 5% more energy by 30° than 0°
   • mono performs better
   • Tilt prevails on tilt with regular pontoon
   • up to 35% more energy by FPV compared to OPV
3. Methods
   • Arduino logger for data collection on pond simulator
   • Test bench and targets described
   • mono and poly PV used
   • Data collected: metrological parameters (ambient temperature, relative humidity, water temperature), electrical parameters (current, voltage, and power), PV module temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, ambient temperature, and relative humidity
   • Different tilt angles tested; Different pond coverage tested
   • PVC water basin used as pond simulator
   • Measuring station components lists provided
   • Thermal imaging for hotspots

The performance and amphibious operation potential of a new floating photovoltaic technology^[10][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Floating photovoltaics (FPV) is a rapidly emerging technology that provides an alternative to ground-mounted PV (GPV), particularly where land is scarce or expensive. Despite an impressive technological development and growth in installed capacity in recent years, studies on the performance and reliability of FPV are scarce. This work provides insight with respect to the performance, reliability, and operational characteristics of a new FPV technology with the aim to identify innovation opportunities, reduce risks, develop improved solutions, and improve bankability of FPV. We have analysed production and weather data from one year of operation for an open FPV system with a small water footprint located on a water body in Kilinochchi, Sri Lanka. The technology is developed by the company Current Solar. Using established filtering routines and algorithms from pvlib, the yield and performance ratio is calculated and compared to a GPV system installed on the shore of the lake. We find that the technology gives a stable overall performance over the one-year period, and that the period of amphibious operation did not impact the continued performance of the system. Calculations of the U-value of the system, based on the production and weather data, gives a median U-value of 33 W/m2K, slightly higher than the default PVsyst value of 29 W/m2K for freestanding GPV systems. The calculated U-values are used in an energy yield analysis in PVsyst to estimate the energy production of the FPV technology and benchmark it against measured data.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • PV deployment will be limited by lack of available land resources
   • Floating PV as a potential solution -> ref provided
   • Growth of FPV but challenge related to performance and reliability, long-term production and monitoring data
   • Misalignment of FPV can potentially lead to mismatch losses
   • Explained performance and reliability of FPV through lit review
   • Module temp simulation for ground-based model -> Skoplaki and Palyvos (2009)
   • Faiman model: ${\displaystyle T_{mod}=T_{amb}+{\frac {G(\alpha -\eta )}{U_{0}+U_{1}v'}}}$
   • Heat loss coefficient (U-value) studied in literature -> ref provided
   • Heat loss coefficient differ with location conditions
   • Few studies on U-value for FPV or studies with limited monitoring
   • Additional cooling effect is FPV-dependent -> ref provided
   • Effect of parameters depends on FPV mounting structure
   • Goal: performance reliability over a year; thermal loss coefficients; performance before, during, and after a drought.
2. Results and Discussion
   • Mean PR = 0.85
   • Increase in relative yield: 0.6% compared yo GPV
   • Median U-values: 35.5-.2.6 W/m²K
   • FPV unaffected by drought -> amphibious FPV possible
   • CPR values -> 0.9-0.95
3. Methods
   • Tilt 15°
   • Mounting structure: composite beams HDPE pipes
   • Performance ratio
   • Relative yield
   • No wind speed considered, no water temperature, and relative humidity effect considered

The First Design and Application of Floating Photovoltaic (FPV) Energy Generation Systems in Turkey with Structural and Electrical Performance^[11][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are primarily due to the exploitation of fossil fuel as an energy source, and one of the energy alternatives for the reduction of emissions is the use of renewable energy sources; one of these is solar irradiation conversion to useable clean energy. In the city of Istanbul, floating photovoltaic (FPV) installation started in 2017, on one of the lakes with an extensive surface area, Büyükçekmece, which supplies water to the city. To reduce evaporation losses and to generate electricity, two FPV prototypes were installed, with capacities of 9 and 90 kWp. Due to the location and climate of Büyükçekmece Lake, all system components including steel construction, metal sheet, maintenance way, connecting parts, and pontoons must resist extreme weather conditions, especially harsh waves and high wind loads. This paper is focused on a survey of the survival performance of the FPV system under real weather conditions without blockage of evaporation, just the reduction of it. Stress and strain tests were also applied to pontoons, one of the vital components for floating systems. The elasticity module, yield limit and tensile strength were evaluated as 0.42 GPA, 11.5 mPA, and 19 mPA, respectively. The wave height was calculated by means of four practical relationships, taking the lake’s distinctive characteristics into consideration. The electricity generation of 90 kWp FPV measured for June 2017 was 5189 kWh. The structural and electrical performance results from these systems in the city of Istanbul could be applied further to large scale FPV applications in water reservoirs nationally and internationally.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • One of the PV handicaps is that terrestrial solar energy systems cover large areas, and such space may not be available in many parts of the world.
   • Evaporation can be reduced by means of FPV -> ref provided
   • Even can be used on dams if there is not a lot of space for agric
   • Good practice -> FPV + dams or wastewater plants
   • Goal: explaining the design, manufacture, construction and installation stages of the first FPV energy generation systems in Turkey.
2. Project Area
   • Büyükçekmece Lake -> subject to strong winds (up to 43 m/s)
   • Wind conditions at Lake close to sea conditions
   • wind wave height calculations performed
3. FPV Design Components and Testing
   • metal-based frame, pontoons, moorings, PV panels, fittings, connectors, cables, electricity connections, and inverters
   • Increase metal mass to withstand high-waves up to 3m => higher costs
   • 9kWp and 90kWp systems
   • Aluminum frame (9kWp) Steel frame (90kWp), PE pontoons (-> refs provided)
   • Tensile tests performed on pontoon
   • System 2-4 system higher than ground-based (electrical connections excluded) because of pontoon
4. Electricity Generation
   • 250m b/w FPV and GPV
   • No tracking
   • high waves => change in tilt and orientation of FPV
   • No significant change for FPV and and GPV: 2017 annual prod -> 5189kWh Vs 5211kWh
   • FPV lower attributed to change in tilt and azimuth
5. Conclusions
   • FPV design -> location specific
   • Wave force dictates FPV requirements
   • No standards for FPV as for now
   • Wave height may not be important in calmer water but important in turbulent
   • No environmental impacts observed -> lower algae production
   • More consideration for flexible floating systems

Energy performance evaluation for a floating photovoltaic system located on the reservoir of a hydro power plant under the mediterranean climate conditions during a sunny day and a cloudy-one^[12][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Deployment of photovoltaic systems on water bodies unlocks enormous areas in populated regions. Also, their utilization will create the possibility to increase the share of photovoltaics systems related to the energy transition. There is little information regarding the available data for floating photovoltaic systems (FPVS). The positive effect of water on cooling the photovoltaic modules should be considered, also. This study is performed by utilizing experimental data from a field test located in a region having Mediterranean Climate Conditions. It is a newly installed FPVS with an installed capacity of 0.5 MWp DC. The unit is the world’s biggest of its configuration referred to the installed capacity and its diameter. Results include the energy yield, final yield, performance ratio, capacity factor, and system efficiency. They refer to a daily period during sunny and cloudy days and offer a clear view regarding the system operation. For the considered sunny and cloudy days, it is noticed that the daily final yields are 7.289 kWh/(kWp·day) and 3.572 kWh/(kWp·day), respectively. The daily performance ratio is 86.9% (sunny day) and 89.8% (cloudy day). Also, the daily system efficiency in the selected days are 17.4% and 17.9%, respectively.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Using FPV can prevent escalation of land cost
   • Review of past FPV studies
   • Goal: experimental analysis of a floating photovoltaic system employed on the water reservoir of a hydro power plant
2. Results and Conclusions
   • Energy data analyzed for only 2 days -> one sunny, one cloudy
   • Analyzed parameters-> energy generated from the FPV unit, the final yield, the performance ratio, system efficiency, and the capacity factor
   • Daily energy yield -> 3,644 kWh/day (sunny day); 1,786 kWh/day (cloudy day)
   • Power density -> 134 W/m²
   • Max hourly yield -> 0.847 kWh/kWp (sunny day); 0.583 kWh/kWp (cloudy day)
   • Daily yield -> 7.289 kWh/(kWp⋅day) and 3.572 kWh/(kWp⋅day)
   • PR -> 86.9% (sunny day); 89.8% (cloudy day)
   • CF -> 30.4% (sunny day); 14.9% (cloudy day)
   • Efficiency -> 17.4% (sunny day) ; 17.9% (cloudy day)
3. Methods
   • Floating tech -> circular floater with diameter = 68.8m
   • PV capacity = 500kWp
   • Climate conditions -> mediteranenan
   • FPV combined to hydro
   • Total reservoir surface -> 14km²
   • Total area for 2MWp FPV -> 0.0163 km² ; Specific area -> 0.4984 km²/MWp
   • Flat PV (tilt =0) -> prevents azimuth variation
   • Hydropower capacity -> 72MW ; annual production hydro -> 256MWh
   • Dam: length -> 900m; width -> 370m; height -> 80m
   • Water level -> 160 - 175m
   • Shading risk -> mountains; dam
   • Membrane b/w PV and water
   • Steel mounting rope for anchoring
   • Walkway between PV provided (d =1.088m)
   • PV -> 60 cell s-c Si; Inverter specs provided
   • Grid connection specs described

Field experience and performance analysis of floating PV technologies in the tropics^[13][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The interest in floating photovoltaic (FPV) power plants has grown rapidly in recent years. In many established and emerging markets, such as Japan, South Korea, UK, China, and India, FPV is already considered as an attractive and viable option for PV deployment. In 2016, Singapore launched the world's largest FPV testbed, with a total installed capacity close to 1 MWp. This testbed aims to study the economic and technical feasibility, as well as the environmental impacts of deploying large-scale FPV systems on inland fresh water reservoirs. The testbed currently consists of 8 systems, with different configurations in terms of PV modules, inverters, and floating structures. The field experience of deploying, operating, and maintaining these systems, together with a comparison of their performance and reliability offers highly valuable learning points for the FPV community. In this work, we present extensive, high-quality field measurement data; compare operating environments on water and on a rooftop; analyze system performance of different FPV systems; and share some issues encountered. We found that FPV does confer some performance benefits, but best practices should also be established to avoid new issues and pitfalls associated with deploying PV on water.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • FPV advantages listed: reduced land use, reduction in temperature losses (up to 10% improvement), less shading, less dust-soiling, complementary operation with hydro, algae growth reduction, evaporation loss reduction, integration with aquaculture and fish farming, huge potential.
   • Not enough study that covers technical implications, the economics, and the environmental aspects
   • Goal: describe the FPV testbed and its monitoring system; analyze operating environment on water as compared with environment onshore; share some operation and maintenance experience by reporting a few prominent issues encountered.
2. Results and Discussion
   • All PFV systems show lower temperature than rooftop -> extent depends on floating system and weather conditions
   • U-value -> figure with different types of float provided
   • Energy yield: 1160 -1430 kWh/kWp (annual) => 3.2 -3.9 kWh/kWp (daily)
   • DC cables longer than usual systems if inverter onshore
   • PR of FPV 5-10% higher than GPV
   • Module quality, system configuration, as well as workmanship play an important role in system performance
   • Challenges: soiling from bird droppings; mechanical wearing due to platform movement; insulation faults;
3. Methods
   • Wind load important in design float structure
   • Wind offers cooling effect
   • Water Albedo low (5-7%) Vs rooftop albedo (13%)
   • Lower water albedo -> impacts FPC bifacial

The booming of floating PV^[14][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The global trend of electric energy production is analysed with a forecast up to 2030. The current status of the Floating PV is discussed, taking into account data up to 2019. The growth rate for the main renewable energy sectors is analyzed and on this basis a naïve exponential forecast up to 2030 is given. Corrections to this forecast are discussed and the value for the installed FPV plants in 2030 is suggested.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Global FPV production in 2019: 1.656 GWh -> ref provided
   • Forecast done assuming 100% growth rate
   • Goal: analysis of FPV growth rate
2. Renewable Energy Sources (RES): the electric power and the electric energy trends
   • RES growth rate in last 10 years -> 8.5%
   • PV growth rate in last 10 years -> 23%
3. The advantages of PV and FPV energy production
   • Advantages of PV and FPV provided: simplicity and reliability; scalability; low-costs
   • Main limit of PV -> land-use ~ 10000 m²/MWp => market contraction in Europe and North America
   • FPV seems to be right solution for further expansion
   • FPV advantages: Strong reduction of land occupancy; Limiting greenhouse and albedo effect; Hybrid system and coupling to the hydroelectric power plants (HPP); Reduction of specific energy costs; Installation and decommissioning; Water saving; Cooling and Tracking; Environment control; Coupling with fish farming
4. Growth trend in the near future and 2030 forecast
   • Growth rate factors:
   • 1. Availability of water surfaces near highly populated areas
   • 2. Coupling FPV with hydro basins
   • 3. Policy incentives
   • Dominance of solar PV over other RES after 2027
   • 1.9% FPV contribution in 2030
5. The limit to the RES growth
   • Intermittence
   • Low capacify factor
   • Possible solutions
   • 1. smart grids
   • 2. PV integration with hydro
   • 3. storage systems
   • 4. synthetic fuel

Performance Analysis of Offshore Floating PV Systems in Isolated Area^[15][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The PV solar system is one of the most popular renewable energy systems. Besides being easy to apply, the infrastructure is usually more flexible than other power plants and the resources can be found almost anywhere. Along with the increasingly frequent use of PV power plants in isolated areas, there are obstacles to land use, especially in island areas, where land has been used for housing and community activity areas, so that there is no location left for PV power plants placement. Therefore, the PV power plant is installed above the water surface, known as offshore floating PV. Offshore floating PV and conventional land PV have different ecosystems, so there will be differences in performance. The performance of the power system is one aspect of choosing which system is best to apply. In this research, the indicators of the performance of the power system are voltage, current, and power output. They will be compared between offshore floating PV and conventional PV on land. The research location is the Kudingarenglompo island, which is an island located off the coast of Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. 400kW is provided as system capacity, which is based on the existing power system on the island. The research results show that current and voltage on offshore floating PV are higher than conventional PV on land, so the power output from offshore floating PV is higher than on land PV. The average power output on land PV is 1,29% lower than on offshore floating PV.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • FPV advantages: efficient land use; higher power output; lower temperatures
   • Goal: a new floating PV system design will be proposed as a substitute for PV on land, especially for isolated islands. It will be investigated how the performance of offshore floating PV is compared with conventional land PV on Kodingarenglompo Island.
2. Results
   • FPV 2.54% more power than GPV
   • Increase due to water temp and wind speed
3. Methods
   • Temperature model (model not found after tracing) -> air temp, wind speed, irradiation
   • Matlab Modeling
   • 400kW FPV
   • Comparison with GPV
   • Simulation -> PV system, constant load, no battery

Prediction Model of Photovoltaic Module Temperature for Power Performance of Floating PVs^[16][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Rapid reduction in the price of photovoltaic (solar PV) cells and modules has resulted in a rapid increase in solar system deployments to an annual expected capacity of 200 GW by 2020. Achieving high PV cell and module efficiency is necessary for many solar manufacturers to break even. In addition, new innovative installation methods are emerging to complement the drive to lower $/W PV system price. The floating PV (FPV) solar market space has emerged as a method for utilizing the cool ambient environment of the FPV system near the water surface based on successful FPV module (FPVM) reliability studies that showed degradation rates below 0.5% p.a. with new encapsulation material. PV module temperature analysis is another critical area, governing the efficiency performance of solar cells and module. In this paper, data collected over five-minute intervals from a PV system over a year is analyzed. We use MATLAB to derived equation coefficients of predictable environmental variables to derive FPVM’s first module temperature operation models. When comparing the theoretical prediction to real field PV module operation temperature, the corresponding model errors range between 2% and 4% depending on number of equation coefficients incorporated. This study is useful in validation results of other studies that show FPV systems producing 10% more energy than other land based systems.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • cited temperature model studies for conventional PV -> ref provided
   • rise in temp => lower bandgap; higher short-circuit current; and very low open circuit voltage => low fill factor and output power
   • Goal: proposes a model that correlates the temperature of a FPV module to the ambient temperature, solar radiation, and wind speed. A second model incorporates the influence of water temperature of the FPV installation.
2. Results and Discussion
   • Rooftop PV outperform FPV in quantity but FPV outperforms rooftop PV in quality
   • 2 temperature model provided
   • Modeled temperature plotted -> but not clear how data was aggregated
   • Modeling error 2-4%
   • list of empirical PV temperature models provided
   • different models explain heat dissipation differently
   • lower operating temp => better heat dissipation
   • 1° rise in module temp => 0.058% efficiency loss
   • 2/3 of annual yield generated when module temp < 40° C
3. Methods
   • Sensors description provided: pyranometer - anemometer - accelerometer - humidity (air) - temperature (air, PV, water)
   • Systems specs provided - Test Bed FPV (100 kW); Main FPV (500 kW); Rooftop PV (1MW)
   • Multiple linear regression - standard least square minimization

Distributed manufacturing of after market flexible floating photovoltaic modules^[17][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Floating photovoltaic (FPV) technology is gaining prominence as a means to alleviate land use conflicts while obtaining large solar PV deployments and simultaneously reducing evaporated water loss. In this study, an open source after-market distributed manufacturing method is proposed to be applied to large flexible PV modules to make flexible FPV systems. Specifically this study considers surface floating of flexible thin film solar PV using three types of closed-cell foams: i) neoprene, ii) mincell and iii) polyethylene. The fabricated FPV underwent indoor and outdoor tests for flotation, wave resistance, temperature and resistance to algae accumulation. The average operational temperature was reduced by 10–20 °C for the FPV compared to land-based mounting indicating substantial increases in electricity output compared to ground-based deployment of any type of PV (2–4% for amorphous silicon used here and 5–10% for crystalline silicon based PV). In addition, foam-based FPV racking were also found to reduce costs of racking to $0.37–0.61/W, which is significantly lower than raft-based FPV as well as conventional land-based racking. The results of this preliminary study indicate that foam-backed FPV is exceptionally promising and should be further investigated with different foams, larger systems and more diverse deployments for longer periods to increase PV deployments.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • PV demands large surface areas -> ref provided
   • FPV reduces water losses from 70-85% -> ref provided
   • FPV + aquaculture -> aquavoltaics
   • FPV for drying and heat reduction
   • Four FPV strategies: tilted (ponton) - submerged (with and without pontoon) - micro-encapsulated phase change material pontoon (MEPCM) - thin-film PV
   • Goal: this study will consider surface floating of thin film solar FPV, mechanical and electrical connections on water, floating materials, and mooring. Three types of such thin film FPV panels are tested with three different floating materials: i) neoprene, ii) mincell, and iii) polyethylene based on their buoyancy.
2. Results and Discussion
   • FPV temp reduction -> 10 - 20°C
   • good impact on the performance of CIS and C-Si based PV
   • Flexible FPV has continuous cooling from water
   • Foam reduce cost
   • Using PE decreases cost by 40%
   • Algal growth did not impact the performance of PV
   • Racking costs: 0.37USD/W
3. Methods
   • calculated amount of foam needed for PV floatation
   • indoor testing and float height quantification
   • PV reduced algae growth by limiting sunrays to water
   • Mooring and docking system described
   • Temperature measurement through DAQ

Water Conservation Potential of Self-Funded Foam-Based Flexible Surface-Mounted Floatovoltaics^[18][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

A potential solution to the coupled water–energy–food challenges in land use is the concept of floating photovoltaics or floatovoltaics (FPV). In this study, a new approach to FPV is investigated using a flexible crystalline silicon-based photovoltaic (PV) module backed with foam, which is less expensive than conventional pontoon-based FPV. This novel form of FPV is tested experimentally for operating temperature and performance and is analyzed for water-savings using an evaporation calculation adapted from the Penman–Monteith model. The results show that the foam-backed FPV had a lower operating temperature than conventional pontoon-based FPV, and thus a 3.5% higher energy output per unit power. Therefore, foam-based FPV provides a potentially profitable means of reducing water evaporation in the world’s at-risk bodies of fresh water. The case study of Lake Mead found that if 10% of the lake was covered with foam-backed FPV, there would be enough water conserved and electricity generated to service Las Vegas and Reno combined. At 50% coverage, the foam-backed FPV would provide over 127 TWh of clean solar electricity and 633.22 million m3 of water savings, which would provide enough electricity to retire 11% of the polluting coal-fired plants in the U.S. and provide water for over five million Americans, annually.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • PV can be easily scalable to meet human needs -> but needs substantial amount of land
   • Utility-scale PV land footprint -> 20 - 40 km²/GWh
   • reduction in agriland not acceptable in a food-crisis world
   • FPV easier to install, simpler to decommission than GPV
   • Operational temp reduced due to water proximity
   • FPV could cut evaporatiom by as much 90%
   • System design strategies highlighted: tilted (ponton) - submerged (with and without pontoon) - micro-encapsulated phase change material pontoon (MEPCM) - thin-film PV
   • Goal: Coupling c-Si flexible PV with foam- based floatation devices
2. Results
   • Temperature model provided but only for a single day of measured data in summer
   • Temperature model proposed more refined than Kamuyu's original method (tailored to pontoon)
   • FPV flat temp range -> -8.5°C to 48.7°C
   • FPV tilted temp range -> -3.4°C to 58.2°C
   • 3.5% more energy production if modules were flat
   • 10% coverage of Lake Mead -> 25.59TWh annual energy; 126.64 million m³ water savings
   • 50% coverage of Lake Mead -> 128.93TWh annual energy; 633.22 million m³ water savings
   • Water savings cost -> $44 - $861 million depending on water consumption cost range and lake coverage
   • Energy generation cost -> $0.5 - $2.6 billion USD
3. Discussion
   • Water savings supply Los Angeles or Nevada if 50% covered
   • When 10% covered, enough water to supply Las Vegas and Reno
   • 10% coverage -> enough electricity for more than 2 million Americans (Las Vegas, Reno, Henderson combined)
   • 50% coverage -> enough energy to retire 11% coal-fired plants
   • More studies needed to refine temperature model over multiple seasons
4. Methods
   • Modified Penman-Monteith for evaporation modelling -> air temp replaced by water temp in lake evaporation
   • Detailed model equations provided
   • Modified Kamuyu model for cell temperature
   • Losses affecting the system are described
   • Water saving calculations are detailed

Building-Integrated PV[edit | edit source]

Pilot study on building-integrated PV: Technical assessment and economic analysis^[19][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) is an innovative green solution that incorporated energy generation into the building façade with modification on the building material or architectural structure. It is a clean and reliable solution that conserves the aesthetical value of the architecture and has the potential to enhance the building's energy efficiency. Malaysia's tropical location has a high solar energy potential to be exploited, and BIPV is a very innovative aspect of technology to employ the available energy. Heriot-Watt University Malaysia (HWUM) has a unique roof design that could be utilized as an application of the BIPV system to generate electricity, reducing the carbon footprint of the facility. Eight BIPV systems of different PV technologies and module types and with capacities of 411.8 to 1085.6 kW were proposed for the building. The environmental plugin software has been integrated with a building geometry modelling tool to visualize and estimate the energy potential from the roof surface in a 3D modelling software. Additionally, detailed system simulations are conducted using PVSyst software, where results and performance parameters are analysed. The roof surface is shown to provide great energy potential and studied scenarios generated between 548 and 1451 MWh yearly with PR range from 78% to 85%. C-Si scenarios offer the best economical profitability with payback period of 4.4 to 6.3 years. The recommended scenario has a size of 1085.5 kW and utilizes thin-film CdTe PV modules. The system generates 1415 MWh annually with a performance ratio of 84.9%, which saves 62.8% of the electricity bill and has an estimated cost of 901 000 USD. Installation of the proposed system should preserve the aesthetical value of the building's roof, satisfy BIPV rules, and most importantly, conserves energy, making the building greener.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • BIPV -> carbon footprint reduction -> net-zero energy building targets
   • 40% BIPV growth since 2009
   • BIPV integrates well with architectural designs
   • BIPV price does not compete with PV
   • a-Si BIPV not fully matured
   • More cooperation needed b/w PV designers and building architects
   • Goal: assessing the solar radiation resource potential at the Heriot-Watt University Malaysia location, designing a grid-connected BIPV system to fit on the curved roof of this building, aids to save energy by reducing the utility bill, and evaluating the performance of proposed system scenarios by comparing different performance and economic parameters
2. BIPV Systems Description and Reviews
   • 3 forms of BIPV: roof-integrated; curtain-integrated; window-integrated
   • BIPV design parameters listed
   • BIPV advantages: no land required; possible material cost reduction; no mounting system
   • 50% rise in BIPV systems form 2014 to 2015
   • Not enough knowledge on dust impact for BIPV
   • Cleaning schedule may increase cost economic impact
   • Other degradations factors are specified
   • Unproper installation could be detrimental to building
3. Results and Discussion
   • 12.3% loss due to temperature effect in Design 1
   • a-Si -> low efficiency
   • Scenario 3: PR b/w 78% and 84.9%
   • CdTe Scenario 3 -> highest efficiency; lowest temperature losses -> highest cost
   • Facade PV have lower PR compared to roof PV
   • Results will reduce carbon footprint of building
   • Thin film not economically feasible
   • Best Option economically -> scenario 5
   • Design 3 -> 992 tons CO2 reduction; 7.3 years EPBT
4. Methods
   • Investigation of different PV technologies: CIGS Flex; a-Si Flex; mono c-Si Flex; CdTe Standard frameless; mono c-Si standard; poly c-Si standard
   • Energy modeling
   • PV System Scenarios Table

Scenario	Technology	DC Power (kW)
Design 1	CIGS	546
Design 2	a-Si	411.8
Design 3	CdTe	1085.6
Design 4	c-Si Mono	1078.8
Design 5	c-Si Poly	1047
Mixed (1+3)	CIGS-CdTe	758.8
Mixed (1+5)	CIGS-Poly c-Si	750.6
Mixed (3+4)	CdTe-Mono c-Si	1082.2

• • Architectural 3D-modeling
  • Economic analysis -> NPV explained in detail
  • Non-optimal tilt-orientation factor (TOF) in BIPV -> architecture constrains BIPV efficiency

Optimum design of building integrated PV module as a movable shading device^[20][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Building-integrated PV (BIPV) can be used as an external shading device as well as an electricity generator. In this study, the energy efficiency of the movable BIPV shading system installed over the windows has been investigated. In the first stage, the PV panels monthly electricity generation at different tilt angles and the building's monthly thermal load for the various overhang depth of windows were calculated. Based on the data obtained from these analyses, optimal condition for PV panel and overhang were determined for each month. In the next step, the geometry of the BIPV Panel was designed such that in each month the BIPV panel can provide obtained conditions. The movable BIPV shading was compared with the fixed modes include BIPV installed over the window with distance, BIPV installed over the window without distance, overhang, and no shading mode with fixed PV on the roof. The building annual thermal load integrated with the movable system, in comparison with four mentioned fixed modes is 12, 16, 15 and 20 % lower, and electricity generation, excessive to building thermal demand is 70, 142, 113, and 290 % higher respectively. The annual electricity generated by the movable PV is only 2 % higher than the fixed mode.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Common building material elimination using BIPV
   • High social acceptance of BIPV -> ref provided
   • BIPV uses with ref: wall, roof, window, shading device
   • List of past BIPV shading analysis performed
   • Conflict b/w optimal tilt angle for electricity generation vs optimal angle for heat/cool loads reduction -> ref provided
   • Potential solution -> use moveable BIPV
   • Moveable BIPV useful to reduce heating and cooling loads (20-80% reduction) -> ref provided
   • Moveable BIPV useful for visual comfort
   • Goal: increasing the energy performance of the BIPV shading device and reducing the building's thermal load and increasing its power generation by making BIPV panels possible to move and optimization in its geometry.
2. Results and Discussion
   • Movable systems are complex and costly
   • Proposed movable system offers slightly higher electricity generated compared to fixed systems - 2%
   • Proposed system offer higher thermal and cooling load reduction -> values provided
   • System performance is dependent on cooling and heating systems efficiency
3. Methods
   • Parameters: heating loads, cooling loads, BIPS tilt angle
   • Location Teheran
   • Optimization Objective: Minimize grid electricity
   • Software: EnergyPlus, MATLAB
   • Assumption1: no shading from neighboring buildings
   • Assumption2: PV modules 2.5m x 1m
   • Assumption3: All electricity sold to grid

Electrical Performance Study of Colored c-Si Building-Integrated PV Modules^[21][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Digital ceramic printing on glass is explored as a solution to “camouflage” crystalline silicon-based solar cells in order to improve the visual appearance of c-Si PV modules for building-integrated photovoltaics; however, printing on the front glass reduces the light transmittance and, thus, affects the module performance. By combining experiments and regression modeling, we quantify the effect of six different colors with varying print opacities on module electrical parameters under standard test conditions. Our experimental results reveal that print opacity and color have a significant detrimental impact on the module short-circuit current (Isc) and maximum module power (Pmpp), but minimally affects the module open-circuit voltage (Voc) and fill factor (FF). Taking black print with 100% opacity as an example, the monochromatic module shows 75% Isc-loss, 74% Pmpp-loss, 6% Voc-loss, and 5% FF-gain compared to a nonprinted glass. Furthermore, it is observed that at any given print opacity, black print results in the highest performance loss, whereas blue print shows the lowest loss. Our regression analysis shows that the effect of print opacity on module-Isc is color dependent. The fitted regression models for the six colors under study are able to predict the Isc-loss for any given opacity level with a root mean square error of less than 1%.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • PV applications locations: grasslands, satellites, space vehicles, buildings, waterbody
   • Space constraints limit the installation of large-scale ground-mounted PV systems -> ref provided
   • BIPV -> retrofit PV; build PV as material
   • Aesthetics is valued in BIPV
   • First modules used in BIPV: thin-film; dye-sensitized -> low efficiency -> numbers and ref provided
   • c-Si are not always visually appealing
   • Digital ceramic printing on glass is one of the proposed solution to beautify c-Si BIPV
   • Printing affects light transmittance and electrical performance (I-V curve)
   • cited studies that characterized PV performance -> ref provided
   • Goal: perform experiments to investigate the impact of digital ceramic printing on I–V characteristics of BIPV modules with six elementary colors from NCS and varying print opacity.
2. Results
   • losses in Isc vary by color -> ref provided
   • Blue has lowest loss; black has highest
   • Voc has a negative correlation with print opacity -> values provided
   • Decrease in Pmp for all colors compared to reference cell
3. Discussion
   • Isc loss increases with opacity
   • Knowing the change in short-circuit current (and maximum power point current) is essentially more informative as it is a critical metric for mismatch loss and hotspot reliability issue.
4. Methods
   • Sample preparation described in detail
   • Investigated parameters: Isc; Voc; FF; Pmpp
   • Regression modeling to find relation b/w parameters & print opacity

Design and assessment of building integrated PV (BIPV) system towards net zero energy building for tropical climate^[22][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Recent increment trend of renewable energy generation demand has revolutionised on how modern civilisation harnessing energy from renewable source especially the solar energy. According to IRENA, about 53% increase of solar energy installed capacity had been reported from year 2017 to 2021. This trend is expected to be doubles as revised Energy Efficient Directive (EU) is committed to add renewable share from 17% from 2015 to 34% in 2030. Among the effort to achieve the target highlighted by International Energy Agency (IEA) in their Net Zero by 2050 Roadmap is to develop or improved energy management on existing and new building to meet net zero energy building. One of the emerging and fast-growing solution is implementing Building Integration Photovoltaic (BIPV) as it offered not only clean electricity generation but also seamless integration aspect to the building envelope. However, due to a limitation factor such as insufficient BIPV infrastructure which dominantly base in European countries. This scenario limits the technology progress especially in Asian countries. Although attractive benefit shown by BIPV system, it is still having a crucial limitation on the visual and aesthetic appearance which considered as “unattractive” to the building appearance by viewers. Thus, there will be quite an issue to implement BIPV on architectural sensitive building such as historic and iconic building. In order to solve this issue, a pilot study of coloured BIPV system performance is conducted on an iconic building in tropical climate region which is Daya Bumi Building, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The method adopted is based on cross-platform between 3D modelling simulation in Building Information Modelling (BIM) software and detail solar analysis (PVsyst) to obtain accurate analysis results. Varies of coloured PV modules are assess and compared to obtain the optimum BIPV system configuration. The proposed BIPV system is able to produce energy of 679.72 MW annually with carbon saving of 10367.66 tCO2/year of CO2 emission. The coloured BIPV application are expected to camouflage the PV panel appearance on the building which could preserve the original architectural aesthetic. This research promotes conscious of BIPV as a crucial innovative solution in implementing PV panel on building without sacrificing the architectural aesthetic value. Furthermore, BIPV system design using BIM software can be replicate to provide seamless work transition between building architecture, structural engineering, renewable energy engineering and building operations. This is in line with Malaysian 10-10MySTIE Framework effort to transform into a knowledge-intensive and innovation driven economy which include production, management and distribution of energy from renewable energy sources.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • BIPV improve aesthetics of building + helps with zero-emission green infrastructure
   • BIPV limitations -> vertical building in densely populated cities
   • Solution: integrate BIPV into façade, windows, and walls
   • BIPV electricity generation is less than normal PV -> ref provided
   • BIPV more challenging in high-rise building because of differences in shapes -> limited roof area, complex façade shapes (reduced installation areas)
   • BIPV requires high capital cost
   • BIPV limited by aesthetical value depending on PV material
   • BIPV can reduce cooling loads and heating loads in a building -> ref provided
   • Use of colored PV increase public acceptance -> ref provided
   • Goal: investigation and assessment the colored PV system performance and efficiency of BIPV system on a high-rise building in tropical climate to meet net zero building criteria.
2. Results and Discussion
   • Highest color BIPV energy is 75% of conventional PV energy
   • Lowest energy (colored amorphous) is 24% of conventional energy
   • Different in PR for the building: rooftop (82.9%); east façade (63%); west façade (58.6%) -> increased mismatch losses
   • CO2 savings: rooftop: 5.3 ktons CO2; west façade (2.9 ktons CO2); east façade (2.2 ktons CO2)
   • Cost of BIPV high compared to conventional -> numbers provided
   • PBT: rooftop (5.5 years); east façade (13.3 years); east façade (19.8 years)
   • ROI: rooftop (322.4%); east façade (42.5%); west façade (-6.5%)
3. Methods
   • BIM Software + Autodesk Revit + PVSyst
   • Steps:
   • Building selection
   • Building 3D modelling
   • BIPV system design
   • detailed BIPV assessment (electricity production + carbon emissions + financial performance)
   • Assessment with: ref energy yield, array yield, final yield, performance ratio, CO2 saved, ROI

Performance of PV integrated wall and roof as a building material^[23][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The performance of the Photovoltaic (PV) module as a building material is analyzed by predicting the hourly variation in the room temperature compared to base case (conventional material). A computer simulation model of Fourier admittance method is used for the analysis. The average temperature fluctuation of PV roof and PV wall building compared to base case is 6.58°C and for PV wall 2.91°C respectively. The total daily energy generation from PV wall is found in the range of 6.7 kWh to 11.86 kWh, for PV roof its 17.24 kWh to 22 kWh. Due to temperature fluctuation the max additional daily cooling load obtained in PV roof case is 94.7 kWh and 41.97 kWh for PV wall.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • PV wall first study cited -> ref provided
   • BIPV may alter/deviate the thermal comfort of building, mainly in summer months
   • Goal: analysis of the effect of only PV modules as a south wall and the roof on the variation in the room temperature (Tr) magnitude for 24 hrs cycle.
2. Results and Discussion
   • PV covered rooms show a rise in temperature
   • PV roof increased temperature more than PV walls
   • Higher energy production from PV roof
3. Methods
   • Fourier admittance method and energy balance
   • Simple PV model: ${\displaystyle E_{g}=0.12A_{PV}I_{T}[1-0.04(T_{a}+\omega {\frac {0.32}{8.91+2.0V_{f}}}I_{T}-25)]}$

Recent advancement in BIPV product technologies: A review^[24][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Application of building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) technology in the building envelope gives an aesthetical and modern appearance. BIPV is a practical, innovative and promising technology for net zero emission buildings. This paper introduces the best in class of the BIPV products and their properties along with international guidelines and testing standards. BIPV products for rooftops, façades and windows have been highlighted in this paper. The properties of BIPV products incorporate solar PV efficiency, Voc, Isc, Pmax and fill factor (FF). The life cycle sustainable assessment of BIPV module has been reviewed by examining energy payback time and GHG emission.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • BIPV is important for energy savings
   • BIPV transforms building from energy consumer to energy producer
   • Rooftop BIPV -> 80% of market ; Façade BIPV -> 20% of market
   • BIPV serves as weather protection, thermal insulation, noise protection
   • Rooftop solar popular because of lack of ground space and availability of unused roof space
   • 5 categories of BIPV: • BIPVs foil; • BIPVs tile; • BIPVs module; • BIPVs solar cell glazing; • BAPV
   • Goal: BIPV technologies review
2. Content
   • Provided table comparing different types of BIPV (Table 6 in the paper)
   • Manufacturers specs of different types of BIPV provided in Table 7 to Table 12
   • LCA of different BIPVs shown in Table 13 and Table 14
   • Preferred location for BIPV -> rooftop
   • Large space on façade available

Solar PV Canopies[edit | edit source]

An exploratory study on road tunnel with semi-transparent photovoltaic canopy—From energy saving and fire safety perspectives^[25][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Road tunnels consume a large amount of energy, especially in the Canadian cold climate, where the roads are heated electrically or deicing during the winter. For a more sustainable and resilient road tunnel energy system, we conducted an exploratory study on installing a semi-transparent photovoltaic (STPV) canopy at the entrances and exits of a tunnel under a river. The proposed system generates solar-powered electricity, improves thermal and visual conditions, and reduces energy loads. In this study, field measurements of road surface temperature and air temperature were conducted, and numerical simulations with and without STPV were performed to study air and road surface temperatures under different traffic speeds. The field measurements show the road surface temperatures are higher than the air temperature on average. The interior air and road surface temperature were measured to be above 0 °C, even though the outdoor temperature is far below 0 °C, thus significantly reducing the need for deicing in winter using salts. The simulations show that the air and surface temperatures elevate due to the solar transmission heat through the STPV canopy, thus reducing deicing energy consumption significantly. The fire safety analysis also showed that the proposed system’s top opening should be located near the tunnel entrance instead of the canopy entrance for better smoke exhaust during a fire.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Road tunnels require significant energy to maintain -> worsen by climate change
   • Use of PV is possible to power road tunnels -> refs provided
   • Past studies did not focus on thermal aspect of semi-transparent PV for road tunnels
   • No clear study as to the impact of PV canopy on road tunnel fire exhausts
   • Goal: exploring advanced technologies for underground road tunnels; impact of STPV on fire safety, thermal/energy performances;
2. Results and Discussion
   • During rush hour STPV offers temperature increase of ~2.1­°C for road and air temperature
   • No evident temp increase with STPV when non-rush hour -> about 0.9°C for air, and 0.2°C for road
   • No rush hour => less cars => faster car speed => increased air flow => more heat loss
   • STPV acts as greenhouse
   • Reducing heating load by STPV -> even more effective in rush hour
   • Fire study showed location for exhaust
   • No experimental data for fire simulation results
3. Methods
   • Field Measurement / CFD / Fire Dynamic Simulator (FDS)
   • Road tunnel in Montreal beneath river -> description provided
   • 140m long STPV canopies installed at entrance and exits of tunnel
   • Road surface and air temperature measurement s using a vehicle running through the tunnel
   • Thermal model of PV canopies
   • Steady-state CFD analysis

Evaluation of solar photovoltaic carport canopy with electric vehicle charging potential^[26][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

While sustainable mobility and decarbonization of transportation sector are among the most comprehensive solutions to the problem of climate change, electric vehicles (EV) are becoming increasingly popular as the future mode of transport. In this study, the integration of a solar carport canopy to a potential EV charging station is analyzed using various operating conditions. A detailed analysis has been provided for the carport located in southern Taiwan, Kaohsiung city, where electricity generation, emission impacts, and financial analysis of the solar EV charging station are discussed. The results of a case study showed a potential of 140 MWh/year of solar energy yield, which could provide solar electricity of more than 3000 vehicles per month with 1-h parking time, generating 94% lower total carbon dioxide emission than the electricity produced from traditional grid methods. Taken into account the impact of carbon tax implementation on driver economics, the results demonstrated the viability of such photovoltaic (PV)-based charging stations, particularly for possible higher carbon tax scenarios in the future. The presented results can be implemented on a larger scale, offering guidelines and tools for constructing solar-powered EV charging station infrastructure.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • 2050 -> 2/3 humans will live in cities => sustainability threat
   • Electrification of transport essential for decarbonization and energy transition
   • PV need considerable land -> ref provided
   • BIPV challenging because complex geometry
   • PV challenging in urban areas because density, structure and building history
   • Possible solution -> convert parking lots into PV canopies
   • PV provides shade to pedestrian and vehicles -> good for extreme weather
   • Parking offers pre-cooling for vehicles => reduction in vehicle air-conditioning
   • Population density and land-terrain can limit PV deployment in high PV potential locations
   • Goal: presenting a framework for technical approaches and economic evaluation of carport solar panel shading deployment, as well as feasibility assessment for an EV charging station in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
2. Results and Discussion
   • Design PV able to charge b/w 2458 and 3592 vehicles in average -> charging/parking time: 2h to 30min
   • Annual energy output -> 140MWh
   • CO2 emissions -> 4 tons CO2/year -> 94% lower than grid in Taiwan currently
   • EV owners can save up to $60 by adopting PV-based EV charging if carbon tax is $50 and monthly parking fee is $85.
   • Potential Drawbacks: uncertainty on arrival and departure time; intensity of energy demand; lack of prediction about vehicles numbers, types, distances, charging time etc.
   • Risk of underproduction in winter and underutilization in summer
3. Methods
   • Helioscope and PVWatts Simulation
   • Equation provided for number of charging stations and distance traveled per charge
   • EC station grid-connected

Design and Optimization of a Photovoltaic Canopy for an Electric Vehicle Charging Station in Urban Environments^[27][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Nowadays, the use of renewable energies and electric vehicles has become particularly relevant in order to lower the high pollution levels surrounding our cities. The design of a photovoltaic canopy for charging electric vehicles is a highly promising combination that can be set up in urban areas. To favour installing them in different places, this communication provides details of the technico-functional aspects that have been considered to design and fit them, along with other aesthetic and user-centred aspects that help stimulate our society to use such infrastructures.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Canopies -> useful to protect drivers and cars form sun and heat -> avoid high temperatures in cars
   • PV canopies -> attractive and convenient rest area for users
   • Goal: presentation of an optimized photovoltaic canopy design for charging electric vehicles
2. Results
3. Discussion
4. Methods
   • Location regulations and characteristics of a PV canopy area must be taken into account in PV canopy design
   • 5.9m x 12.2m PV canopy
   • Slope dictated by mechanical constraints not energy constraints -> aesthetics reasons as well
   • PV canopy offers seating areas for comfort
   • Design: PV modules + Support structure + Inverter + Generated energy counter + distribution networks and protections + wiring and casing.
   • BIPV panels used for blending -> Total 11.7kW (325W x 36 modules)
   • 3-phase inverters x 2
   • RAPTION-22 EV charger up to 22kW charging power -> allows both DC/AC charging
   • Totals system costs -> €185,052

Long-term test of an electric vehicle charged from a photovoltaic carport^[28][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

The article includes experimental investigations of electricity consumption over a distance of 30,000 km by a small city electric vehicle. During that time period, the vehicle was charged in most cases from a photovoltaic carport with a peak power of 3 kWp. The analyses include vehicle mileage and the number of times the battery has been charged during 5 years of operation. In addition, the amount of energy generated by the photovoltaic carport was also measured. During the entire research period, the small electric vehicle was charged with State of Charge (SoC) 50% almost 900 times. Then, an analysis was performed to determine the adequacy of the carport peak power selection for the energy needs of the electric vehicle.

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • EVs not as clean when charge with conventional grid electricity
   • Advantages of EV drawing customers listed
   • Number of EV charging point increasing
   • In some countries conventional electricity production and distribution infrastructure cannot keep up with EV expansion
   • Possible solution -> PV charging
   • Goal: experimental investigations of electricity consumption over a distance of 30,000 km by a small city electric vehicle
2. Results and Discussion
   • Average energy produced by PV 2x higher than EV needs.
3. Methods / Car Specs
   • Car model -> Renault Twizy
   • Full specs of the car provided
   • Test period 4.5 years in urban conditions usage
   • Use period: April to September
   • Total Distance -> 30,000 km
   • Detailed mileage and energy analysis provided
   • Total energy consumed -> 2,721 kWh
   • Range 65km/full charge -> 9.4kWh /100km
4. Methods / PV Carport
   • 12 s-Ci PV
   • On-grid charger
   • 3 MWh annual production
   • Vehicle consumed ~ 19% of total production

Sound Barrier[edit | edit source]

[url Title]^[29][edit | edit source]

Abstract[edit | edit source]

Key Takeaways[edit | edit source]

1. Introduction
   • Goal:
2. Results
3. Discussion
4. Methods

References[edit | edit source]