This page is under continuous construction.
Producer responsibility and recycling solar photovoltaic modules[edit | edit source]
Citation:
N. C. McDonald and J. M. Pearce, “Producer responsibility and recycling solar photovoltaic modules,” Energy Policy, vol. 38, no. 11, pp. 7041–7047, Nov. 2010, doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.023.
Abstract:
Rapid expansion of the solar photovoltaic (PV) industry is quickly causing solar to play a growing importance in the energy mix of the world. Over the full life cycle, although to a smaller degree than traditional energy sources, PV also creates solid waste. This paper examines the potential need for PV recycling policies by analyzing existing recycling protocols for the five major types of commercialized PV materials. The amount of recoverable semiconductor material and glass in a 1 m2 area solar module for the five types of cells is quantified both physically and the profit potential of recycling is determined. The cost of landfill disposal of the whole solar module, including the glass and semiconductor was also determined for each type of solar module. It was found that the economic motivation to recycle most PV modules is unfavorable without appropriate policies. Results are discussed on the need to regulate for appropriate energy and environmental policy in the PV manufacturing industry particularly for PV containing hazardous materials. The results demonstrate the need to encourage producer responsibility not only in the PV manufacturing sector but also in the entire energy industry.
Key Takeaways:
- Concluded that recycling and landfill costs do not economically drive most types of PV devices to be recycled
- Companies that recycle PV modules may be driven by environmental duty rather then economical
- Recycling of PV having no economic benefit, delayed waste of the PV in 25-30 years require policies so it doesn’t become a voluntary issue
- Two categories of solar panels: c-Si and P-Si are called “1st generation”; a-Si, CIGS, CdTe are called “2nd generation”
- 1st generation cells have crystalline silicon recovered by having the EVA lamination vaporized in the pyrolysis atmosphere of 500°C
- CIGS solar cells go through a smelting and acid bath to recover the selenium (Se), indium (In) and gallium (Ga)
- CdTe recover the metals through chemical stripping
- All silicon-based modules showed to not be profitable to be recycled
Solar Power DIY Handbook[edit | edit source]
Citation:
B. Reeves, Solar Power DIY Handbook. Revisa Publishing LLC, 2018. Accessed: May 10, 2023. [Online]. Available: http://dspace.khazar.org/handle/20.500.12323/4250
Abstract:
This book has actionable information on how to connect your off-grid solar panel to a 12 volts battery. To the person who has little experience in solar technology, installing a solar panel, as well as knowing the right components to use may appear to be especially daunting. The truth, however, is that it is relatively simple to install your solar panel and connect it to your battery. What is more; once you have successfully done it once, it is a lot like learning how to ride a bicycle- you never forget, or have to relearn the process again. If you are thinking about installing a solar panel for your home or office, this book is especially handy, as it takes you through the whole process from start to finish. This book gives you explicit instruction on solar technology. It explains all you ever need to know about solar power as well as solar panel installation. By the end of this book, you would be able to look at solar panel installation as a relatively simple process, with the prospect of a little fun involved. Let's begin.
Key Takeaways:
- Each square meter of Earth gets energy from the sun of up to 164 watts
- Terminology: Solar cells bundle to make solar modules which bundle to make solar panels
- Solar cells are made of two layers of silicon, one with too few electrons and one with too many
- Connecting a solar module to a battery, lithium-ion is superior because:
- Better energy density to size and weight ratio
- Better resilience to rapid discharge
- Better lifecycle
- Con: initial cost (could be outweighed in long run due to maintenance costs of led acid depending on usage patterns)
- Ideal wire has insulation of rating at ~ 105 °C for this application
- Fuses: fuse blocks are great for capacity to hold multiple fuses; in-line fuse holders are compact and great for low-amp applications
- Rule of thumb: if in the Northern Hemisphere, you want panels facing true south
- In US, the tilt angle for panels is latitude * 0.76 + 3.1 degrees
- Pre-built panels by SunPower are 21% efficient
Affordable DIY solar power[edit | edit source]
Citation:
G. Knight, “Affordable DIY solar power,” Appropriate Technology, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 14–16, Jun. 2001.
Available: https://www.proquest.com/docview/199991551
Abstract:
BioDesign has made the conversion of small appliances to solar power cheap and simple. It's strategy is to supply all the raw materials, unframed amorphous silicon (a-Si) solar plates, diodes and low-cost rechargeable Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) batteries, that are necessary for the local assembly of do it your self solar systems in developing countries. This mail order approach to solar power revolves around local people assembling the equipment by following simple instructions that are enclosed in the kits.
Key Takeaways:
- BioDesign made a DIY solar power kit; aiming for cheap and simple
- BioDesign’s kit for DIY solar panels uses Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) batteries
- Lead acid batteries are also used, but NiCd are more affordable and convenient for the domestic purposes
- NiCd work best if drained fully prior to recharging; this lasts 2.5 years
- Under full sun, one square foot of “high-quilty” a-Si gives ~4 watts
- A 6v radio can be solar powered with a 1-watt a-Si panel
- Better if panels charge batteries; opposed to directly powered to appliance
- NiCd terminal block has a diode to avoid battery discharge into the panels
- Barry Sheppard’s next tests will involve rainy season to see how to waterproof the panels; worth looking into
BIOSPHERE SOLAR’s V0.3 How-To[edit | edit source]
Citation:
“Biosphere-Solar-V.0.3-How-To1.pdf - biosphere-solar-v03-4bac7,” Wikifactory. https://wikifactory.com/@biosphere-solar/biosphere-solar-v03-4bac7/file/Biosphere-Solar-V.0.3-How-To1.pdf (accessed May 19, 2023).
Abstract:
Dear reader, welcome to our very first How-To document in which we tell you how we produced the Biosphere Solar V0.3 prototype. Here, we will provide you with all the building blocks of information to allow you to do it yourself! Feel free to give us feedback on this document, or make adjustments/improvements to the design and share them via our discord channel or wikifactory page. At Biosphere Solar, with our team, global community, and your help, we are bringing circularity and fairness to the solar industry and market. An overview of the Biosphere Solar projects - including documentation - can be found in our Wikifactory page. There we invite anyone to join the development of the design and production line. For more information on our mission and values, see our Read-Me document.
Who and what is BIOSPHERE SOLAR? (Copy-paste from their home page https://www.biosphere.solar/ as of May. 19th, 2023):
A REVOLUTION IN SOLAR ENERGY
Photovoltaics is the energy source of the future, but also creates a massive waste stream. Biosphere Solar is a global collective developing a fair and circular solar panel. This way, we set a new design standard for the solar industry, making circularity and transparency the norm. We are developing a modular PV module design, which can be disassembled for repair or refurbishment, it can be upgraded with new technology, and it can be recycled at high value at its end-of-life. The hardware we develop is open-source, enabling anyone to contribute to the concept. In our production, we avoid human rights violations by working with sustainable and responsible suppliers. The project is currently in the product development stage. Our target is to start pilot production in 2023 and enter the market in 2024. Our development is centered in Delft, the Netherlands.
Key Takeaways:
- This is a how-to guide by Biosphere Solar on how to make DIY solar panels
- These panels allow for better recyclability; they do not laminate the cells
- Panels are often wired in series to make high-voltage and manageable current
- “Conventional’” front-to-back contact (FBC) cells are connected front to back of the next one (that’s where the positive and negative are)
- They put glass on front and back of the module with rubber edge seal
- Avoid EVA lamination for cells to stay recyclable; no glue on cells
- Do not touch the cells with bare hands; degrades them (use gloves)
- White spacers are best for efficiency. Personal note: clear is probability even better
- They make moisture and oxygen absorbers for the inside of the modules
- Used silicone caulk around the edge to protect the butyl tape
Mechanical load testing of solar panels — Beyond certification testing[edit | edit source]
Citation:
A. M. Gabor, R. Janoch, A. Anselmo, J. L. Lincoln, H. Seigneur, and C. Honeker, “Mechanical load testing of solar panels — Beyond certification testing,” in 2016 IEEE 43rd Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), Jun. 2016, pp. 3574–3579. doi: 10.1109/PVSC.2016.7750338.
Abstract:
Mechanical load tests are a commonly-performed stress test where pressure is applied to the front and back sides of solar panels. In this paper we review the motivation for load tests and the different ways of performing them. We then discuss emerging durability concerns and ways in which the load tests can be modified and/or enhanced by combining them with other characterization methods. In particular, we present data from a new tool where the loads are applied by using vacuum and air pressure from the rear side of the panels, thus leaving the front side available for EL and IV characterization with the panels in the bent state. Tightly closed cracks in the cells can be temporarily opened by such a test, thus enabling a prediction of panel degradation in the field were these cracks to open up over time. Based on this predictive crack opening test, we introduce the concept of using a quick load test on each panel in the factory as a quality control tool and potentially as a type of burn-in test to initiate cracks that would certainly form early on during a panel's field life. We examine the stresses seen by the cells under panel load through Finite Element Modeling and demonstrate the importance of constraining the panel motion during testing as it will be constrained when mounted in the field.
Key Takeaways:
- Previous tests included static load onto front and back panels (even as simple as placing sandbags)
- Panels can experience load from: factory handling, shipping, installation, and snow and wind loading
- Panel degradation is commonly in form of: cell cracking, edge seal failure, breakage of cover panel (glass often), wiring fatigue, separation of layers
- At the time of the paper, the IEC 61215 test required a static load of 2.4 kPa run three times on each panel side for an hour
- Cyclic load testing, at that time, was a standard however in IEC-TS62782; 2016 version requires load of ±1 kPa for 1000 cycles at the rate of 3-7 cycles/min
- Newer tests include cycles in humid and frozen conditions with goals to open cracks
BIOSPHERE SOLAR’s V.0.4 - How To[edit | edit source]
Citation:
“Biosphere Solar V0.4 | Files,” Wikifactory, Oct. 24, 2022. https://wikifactory.com/@biosphere-solar/biosphere-solar-v04/files (accessed Jun. 08, 2023).
Abstract:
Dear reader, welcome to our second How-To document in which we tell you how we produced the Biosphere Solar V0.4 prototype. We're providing you with all the building blocks of information to allow you to build the solar panel we've designed yourself! Feel free to give us feedback on this document via our discord channel or wikifactory, and to make adjustments and improvements on the design \(and share them via our website www.biosphere.solar or wikifactory page!\).
At Biosphere Solar, with our team, global community, and your help, we are bringing circularity and fairness to the solar industry and market. An overview of the Biosphere Solar projects - including documentation - can be found in our Wikifactory page and website. We're inviting everyone to join the development of the design and production line. For more information on our mission and values, see our Read-Me document.
The How-To document can be found either below or under Files.
Key Takeaways:
- Key difference between Biospheres design and conventional module is the not use of EVA or any glue on cells
- Bypass diodes are recommended between every two strings
- Strings are suggested to not exceed eight cells
- Latex gloves are to be worn when touching cells
- Short circuit happens if multiple horizontal fingers covered in solder
- Panels are sealed with PIB Butyl tape and silicon caulking
Solar panel testing and certifications[edit | edit source]
Citation:
K. Thoubboron, “Solar Panel Testing And Certifications Overview | EnergySage,” EnergySage Blog, Sep. 22, 2020. https://news.energysage.com/solar-panel-testing-certifications/ (accessed Jun. 13, 2023).
Abstract:
Like other types of electronics, solar panel modules go through rigorous testing before installation. These tests are critical to determining the quality and performance of panels under particular environmental stresses, as well as confirming they meet mandated safety requirements. In this article, we’ll review the most common testing and certifications for solar panels on the market today.
Key Takeaways:
- Tests run so panels last 25 years
- Most common standards: IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission and UL: Underwriters Laboratories
- IEC 61215 is a standard tests: plenty stress tests; applies to both mono and poly crystalline; for other types of PVs, such as thin-film PV there is IEC 61646
- IEC 61215 tests electrical characteristics (wet leakage current and insulation resistance), mechanical load (simulates wind and snow), and climate tests (hot spots, UV exposure, humidity-freeze, and much more)
- IEC 61730 is a standard of PV module safety; evaluates electrical, mechanical, thermal, and fire safety
- IEC 62716 tests PV corrosion from ammonia; important if installed next to farm or livestock
- IEC 61701 tests corrosion from salt; tested using salt spray in controlled environment; important for near-sea and near-road (that get salted in wintertime) PVs
- IEC 60068-2-68 tests sand and dust winds/storms for durability
- UL 1703 is similar to IEC 61215 and 61703; simulate climate tests from mechanical, fire and, electrical aspects; mandated to be sold and installed in NA
- IEC is more applicable for global market
- UL 61730 is a recently made test that combines UL 1703 and IEC 61730; will be more widespread
Are Solar Panels Waterproof ?[edit | edit source]
Citation:
R. Teja, “Are Solar Panels Waterproof ?,” ElectronicsHub, Jan. 10, 2023. https://www.electronicshub.org/are-solar-panels-waterproof/ (accessed Jun. 29, 2023).
Abstract:
As you would know, solar panels are a great way to generate electricity for home quite easily without needing a lot of space. These simply convert sunlight to generate free electricity while being highly environmentally friendly. However, to get the most efficiency out of your solar panels, they need to be placed under direct sunlight. Due to this, all solar panels are installed on roofs or backyards and not indoors next to windows.
While installing solar panels on the exterior of your home is certainly recommended for the best efficiency, this does lead to other challenges. To be more specific, your solar panels are going to face a lot of environmental forces when installed outdoors. For example, your solar panel will need to withstand both rain and snow. If any water from rain or snow gets inside your solar panels, it is definitely going to damage them. Hence, before installing solar panels, make sure to go through this guide to learn more about whether solar panels are waterproof or not.
Key Takeaways:
- IP65: withstand water jet from 6.3mm diameter nozzle spraying 12.5 liters per minute for 15 minutes at 30kPa from 3 meters
- IP65 covers rains and snows
- IP66 solar panels are not very common
- IP66: withstands high-pressure water jets from any direction (12.5mm nozzle at 100l per min for 3 min at 3m away)
- IP67 is for high-end solar panels
- IP67: withstand being 15 to 100 cm under water for up to 30 min
- IP67: “To be more exact, if your solar panel’s top portion is 15 cm under water and the bottom is 100 cm under water, then it lasts for up to 30 minutes.”, so bottom must be at 1m
- IP68: some panels can go deeper than 100cm (how deep is stated by manufacturer)
Are Solar Panels Waterproof?[edit | edit source]
Citation:
“Are Solar Panels Waterproof? | Solartechadvisor,” Mar. 11, 2022. https://solartechadvisor.com/solar-panels-waterproof/ (accessed Jun. 29, 2023).
Abstract:
Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity. In order to do this, they need to be in an open area with as much exposure to the sun as possible.
This also means that they will be exposed to the elements. One of the most important elements that they need to be protected from is water.
Key Takeaways:
- IP ratings are given by independent labs
- IP65 solar panels are most common on the market
- IP65: “dust-tight” and withstands low-pressure water jets from all directions
- IP65 is tested by [see article for step by step]; checking in end if water able to enter
- IP66: withstands powerful water jets (see article for detail)
- IP67 solar panels are also common
- IP67: submerged in 15 to 100 cm of water for 30min
- IP67: observe if any presence of water got in
- IP68 is highest rating a panel can get
Introduction to solar panel certifications[edit | edit source]
Citation:
“Introduction to solar panel certifications.” https://sinovoltaics.com/solar-certification/introduction-to-solar-panel-certifications/ (accessed Jun. 29, 2023).
Abstract:
Are you installing solar panels near a coast line? Then your solar panels need to resist salt mist corrosion (IEC 61701). Or is your region dealing with large amounts of snow during winter? Installing solar panels with an increased load capacity (5400Pa) would be a good choice. The number of PV certifications has in the previous years been increasing a lot and solar system installers in many countries know that certified solar products are a required must have for their market.
Key Takeaways:
- IEC 61215 covers aspects for ageing of panels
- IEC 61215 test UV, climate, and mechanical aspects
- Rest cross-confirms “Solar panel testing and certifications” lit review
Wire Gauge and Current Limits Including Skin Depth and Tensile Strength[edit | edit source]
Citation:
“American Wire Gauge Chart and AWG Electrical Current Load Limits table with ampacities, wire sizes, skin depth frequencies and wire breaking strength.” https://www.powerstream.com/Wire_Size.htm (accessed Jun. 29, 2023).
Abstract:
N/A
Key Takeaways:
- Aiming for thinnest wire to fit in panels
- Cells bought peek 6A, hence lowest gauge is 22awg
Leak Detection and Cobalt Chloride[edit | edit source]
Citation:
admin, “Leak Detection and Cobalt Chloride - Precision Laboratories Test Strips,” Precision Laboratories, Aug. 08, 2016. https://www.preclaboratories.com/leak-detection-cobalt-chloride/ (accessed Jun. 30, 2023).
Abstract:
Cobalt chloride, CoCl2, is an inorganic compound that changes color from blue to pink in response to humidity. As humidity increases, cobalt chloride gradually changes color from blue, to pink, to a lighter pink, almost white. The change in color is dramatic, and it makes this compound an excellent indicator of humidity. We’re going to make an obvious statement here…this is the compound used in our Cobalt chloride test paper, cloth, and humidity strips. Didn’t see that one coming, did ya?
Key Takeaways:
- Will use this instead of paper towels with sharpie
- Will run control with a known watertight container in same environment to confirm pressure doesn’t affect the Cobalt Chloride or build humidity under pressure
- Amazon: https://www.amazon.ca/Cobalt-Chloride-Humidity-Papers-Strips/dp/B01M30VDLK
- If got wet, can then dry out and reuse
Improving the end-of-life management of solar panels in Germany[edit | edit source]
Citation:
L. El-Khawad, D. Bartkowiak, and K. Kümmerer, “Improving the end-of-life management of solar panels in Germany,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 168, p. 112678, Oct. 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2022.112678.
Abstract:
Fulfilling the SDGs and reaching the climate neutrality target of the EU Green Deal will require a global effort, for which solar energy is indispensable. From 2030 the global number of decommissioned and thus waste solar panels will increase exponentially. This review article specifies the barriers and solutions to creating a closed loop system (CLS) in the crystalline silicon (c-Si) photovoltaics industry in Germany. The conclusions drawn are however relevant for all countries using solar panels, as they will face similar challenges. Specific recommendations are outlined based on identified challenges that will help ensure a CLS for c-Si solar panels. Regarding regulation it is recommended that recycling targets for solar panels should be adjusted so that they are not linked to weight, as this does not encourage the recovery of all materials. It is also crucial that the design of the solar panels is adjusted to ensure that repair, refurbishment and at a later stage recycling are possible. Since the economic feasibility is not given at a small scale it is suggested for companies to join larger recycling schemes. Collaboration and exchange along the supply and value chain is also identified as essential to ensure the development of solutions that will truly enable the creation of a CLS. Product as a service should also be explored by solar panel companies as this would encourage the production of panels that can be easily repaired and later recycled.
Key Takeaways:
- Reuse of cells at EoL isn’t economically feasible as those cells do not compare in efficiency of modern panels
- More complexity in the recycling process requires more energy and makes more waste
- Recycling a panel used to be just taking the frame (aluminum) and glass (least complicated to get back)
- Processes developed to separate EVA from cell and glass
- Processes include thermal, chemical, and mechanical techniques
- Study showed can use laser to remove cell from EVA
- Right now, recycling costs more then the panel sells for
- Later, when resources decrease but demand increases could be cheaper to recycle
- WEEE demands mass of recycled solar panels, not by component, so heavier and easier elements are recycled like glass and aluminum
- Solar panels are not designed for EoL (glass, eva, cells, eva, glass)
Difference Between Nominal Voltage, Voc, Vmp, Isc, and Imp[edit | edit source]
Citation:
“Nominal Voltage, Voc, Vmp, Isc, & Imp | Solar Panel Specifications,” Nov. 21, 2022. https://www.electronicsforu.com/market-verticals/solar/difference-nominal-voltage-voc-vmp-isc-imp-solar-panels (accessed Jul. 07, 2023).
Abstract:
N/A
Key Takeaways:
- Voc: open circuit voltage
- Vmp: voltage at max power point
- Isc: open circuit current
- Imp: current at max power
- Vmp is voltage when load is connected and working at max capacity and often 70 to 80% of Voc
- Isc is max amps panel can provide without damage
- Pm: max power point
- Efficiency of cell is % of energy received by sun to energy produced by cell
- Most cells have efficiency of 17-19% and highest commercial is ~23%
- FF: fill factor = Pmp / (Voc*Isc) and is the largest that can go inside the IV curve
Recycling of photovoltaic panels by physical operations[edit | edit source]
Citation:
G. Granata, F. Pagnanelli, E. Moscardini, T. Havlik, and L. Toro, “Recycling of photovoltaic panels by physical operations,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 123, pp. 239–248, Apr. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.solmat.2014.01.012.
Abstract:
Recycling of polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon and CdTe photovoltaic panels was investigated by studying two alternative routes made up of physical operations: two blade rotors crushing followed by thermal treatment and two blade rotors crushing followed by hammer crushing. Size distribution, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence analysis of obtained products were carried out in order to evaluate their properties as valuable products. Results showed that for all kinds of investigated photovoltaic modules the two blade rotors crushing followed by hammer crushing and eventually by a thermal treatment of d>1 mm fractions, was the best option aiming to a direct recovery of glass.
Key Takeaways:
- crystalline silicon photovoltaic module estimated to last 25-30 years due to encapsulant materials and wires degrade
