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== 3. Development Interventions ==
We are trying to understand, for development interventions, how much consideration

is given to potential technological alternative ways to reach development goals. There are

three main questions to look at: when the decisions regarding the choice of technology

are made; by whom; and following what criteria.

But let us discuss first what a development intervention is. What are we exactly

talking about? In which form do development interventions take place.

Development interventions start with the identification of a current situation, as local

as that of a community or as global as that of a country or group of countries, that can be

improved. Then one or several goals are established according to what is considered an

improved situation. Finally, something has to be done in order to go from the current

situation to the desired one. Action needs to be taken by one or several actors. This

action, whatever form it takes, is what we call a development intervention. Actors

involved in the development intervention range from local people –the affected

population— or organizations, to others external or foreign to it. In development

interventions there is usually at least one actor that is professionally involved in the field

of development. Further discussion on the actors involved can be found below in the

section dedicated to stakeholder analysis. 46



What is a development project?

One of the most common forms development interventions took since the beginning

of the field of development field after WWII was the development project. Initially it was

mainly associated with infrastructure works in the public sector, but more recently, since

the 1980s and structural adjustment, it has been applied to things like institutional

development and improvement of skills and capabilities, and is often taken on by the

private sector.

Cusworth and Franks (Cusworth and Franks, 1993: 3) define projects in the context

of development this way:

A project is the investment of capital in a time-bound intervention to create productive assets.

The capital mentioned in the definition is both human and physical, and the assets

created can be physical, institutional, or human, and are assumed to remain once the

project is completed.

Potts (Potts, 2002: 12) lists several features that can be expected of development

projects:


* A project involves the investment of scarce resources for future benefit.


* A project can be planned, financed, and implemented as a unit.


* A project has a defined set of objectives and a specific start and end.


* A project has geographical or organizational boundaries.

These characteristics, which development projects share with projects in general,

make the project approach attractive, especially from a managerial point of view: projects 47



can be broken into smaller tasks that are easier to handle and can be scheduled, monitored

and adjusted to changes in plans; alternatives can be analyzed in a systematic way;

projects can be prioritized; costs and benefits can be relatively easily evaluated.

Many of this advantages stem from the time-bound nature of projects and the

specificity of their goals. Extreme caution has to be applied with the project approach,

though, because those same two features do not necessarily fit well with the nature of

development. Oxfam warns us against the careless use of development projects:

… while the processes of development do not have a clear beginning, middle, and end, projects do; and they also require plans, contracts, budgets, reporting schedules, and evaluations. While social and economic processes cannot be controlled by an outside agency, projects may be under external pressure to demonstrate a tangible and swift impact on these processes, which are not under their control; and risk losing their funding if they fail (Eade, et al., 1995: 21).

Oxfam emphasizes the need to understand development projects as part of a broader

social and political context and to incorporate flexibility in the project approach, lest

development projects impose demands that have to do more with development agencies

than the actual development of people.

This is the reason why there has been lately more emphasis on long-term programs

rather than time-bound projects. Although the distinction between programs and projects

is not always too clear, we can say in general that programs are of larger scope and scale,

and include several projects. A program to improve the livelihood of a rural area might

include projects to provide energy, to train in agricultural techniques, to train in

entrepreneurial and managerial skills, etc. 48



In any case, projects are after all the building blocks of programs, and the tool

through which changes are implemented on the field.

Project Cycle

In order to understand when in the life of a development project the decisions

regarding the choice of technology are made, we first need to understand the life cycle of

a development project. Projects tend to go through a series of relatively clearly defined

phases, what is commonly called the project cycle.

The traditional project cycle in development was formulated in 1970 by Baum based

on the processes of the World Bank at the time. It included four major components in

linear progression: identification, preparation, appraisal and implementation (Baum,

1970). In 1978 Baum revised his formulation of the project cycle and included a fifth

component, evaluation, that would include the provision of feedback to be used in future

interventions (Baum, 1978). This addition changes the linear progression into a circle,

and the feedback information obtained from the evaluation part allows for the

improvement of the current project as well as the provision of useful lessons for future

interventions. Figure 6 shows Baum’s project cycle. 49



Identification



Evaluation Preparation



Implementation Appraisal



Figure 6: Baum's project cycle Source: Baum 1978



In the first part, identification, a current situation suitable to be improved is

recognized. In a business environment a project will make sense when there is a demand

for the outputs of the project. It is important to distinguish between demand and need.

The existence of a demand implies the ability and willingness to pay for the outputs

provided by the project, while the existence of needs does not. In the field of

development very often there are needs for the outputs of the project, but not necessarily

demand in the sense explained above.

This first phase also includes the identification of available resources and at least one

potential technical solution to generate the required output from those resources. This

concerns the choice of technology in which this work is focused, and will be analyzed in

more depth in the next chapter. 50



In sum, the identification phase should: specify the goals of the project as regards its

output; list current obstacles for reaching the goals; explain alternative ways to achieve

the goals; and identify the resources required and the actors involved.

There are multiple ways in which projects are identified. The identification might

arise from a government planning process, from local NGOs or other civil organizations,

from private sector actors that see an opportunity for profit, from the local community,

etc. We will analyze the actors involved in this phase in the section on stakeholder

analysis below.

In the second phase, which Baum calls project preparation and is also often referred

to as project formulation, the scope of the project and all the details are specified to the

point where a definite decision can be made whether or not to go on with it. This decision

will take place in the following stage of appraisal.

During the preparation it is important to keep in mind who are the target

beneficiaries, what are the goals, what are the current constraints for the achievement of

those goals, and how does the project propose to overcome those constrains. If the

elaborated project proposal is prepared along these main axes, it will be much easier to

appraise it in the next stage. Indeed, [[international development agencies]] normally provide

specific guidelines for the preparation of this proposal. One of the main tools commonly

used is the Logical Framework, which will be discussed in the next chapter.

During this preparation work the conceptual project defined during the identification

phase is subjected to an analysis of its feasibility. The feasibility studies should determine 51



if it is possible to carry out the project according to the stated objectives with the

financial, technical, human, material, and institutional resources available.

It should also include an analysis and description of all suitable alternatives that

might be used to achieve the desired results. Alternative technological solutions, the main

concern of this thesis, should be proposed and reviewed during this stage. In the next

chapter we will have a closer look at how this process takes place.

The next phase is project appraisal, where the project is reviewed and the decision is

made whether to go ahead with it or not, and which of the remaining alternatives is

chosen. When loans are required from external agencies, as is commonly the case, these

external agencies provide specific guidelines for the appraisal process, which they often

carry out themselves.

According to Goodman and Love project appraisal needs to address two major

questions. First, will the project as it is designed meet its own objectives as well as the

wider needs of its location and nation? And second, how does the project compare with

other projects it may be competing with for funding? (Goodman, et al., 1980: 101).

This appraisal tries to understand what will happen if a particular proposal is

implemented, whether the expected outcome will occur, who will benefit and lose, when

will the outcome take place, and how efficient is the investment considering the resources

employed and the benefits generated. The appraisal of a project is always done against

major policy objectives like for example economic growth, basic needs satisfaction and

equity, environmental protection, etc. 52



The appraisal is based on the detailed and accurate information generated in the

previous phase and uses several well-established techniques for the analysis of this

information. These techniques include economic cost-benefit analysis, socio-economic

analysis, and environmental impact assessment, and will be discussed in the next chapter.

When there are a few alternative ways to define the final project to be implemented,

it is in this appraisal phase that the best alternative is chosen. For our main concern in this

thesis, the choice of technology, this phase is critical because it is here where, when there

is more than one potential technological solution, the final decision will be made as to

which one will be implemented.

Indeed the first two stages of the project cycle, identification, preparation and to

some extent also the appraisal phase, occur often not in a straight linear way one after

another, but more likely in an iterative back and forth process where the project proposal

gets progressively refined. It is in these three stages where any potential technological

alternatives would be considered. Once the project reaches the implementation stage

there is little room for changes in the technologies used. The next chapter will focus in

the procedures used to analyze and select project alternatives during the first stages of the

project, especially the appraisal phase, where the decisions regarding technology choice

take place.

After the appraisal follows the implementation phase where the project proposal is

executed and turned into tangible actions. Goodman and Love (Goodman, et al., 1980:

135) describe the tasks to be done during project implementation: 53




* Breaking down the project into its component tasks and activities;


* Assignment of tasks and activities to project team members, and detailed scheduling of these tasks;


* Allocation and use of resources such as personnel, finance, time and materials;


* Coordination, monitoring and control of the performance of the project team and the use of project resources in a manner which ensures the completion of all project activities in an orderly and optimal way.

Well established project management techniques and tools such as Ganntt and PERT

charts6 are used in this phase to facilitate monitoring and adjustments of the project,

improving project coherence and saving implementation time by separating problems into

their project components.

Finally, in the evaluation phase, the whole project will be re-analyzed in order to

provide feedback information which might be useful for future interventions, closing the

project cycle as a circle in an ideally continuous learning process. In this phase the

project performance is compared with the stated objectives. The idea is to understand the

reasons for the success or failure of the project, looking at what works and what does not,

so that errors are not repeated in future interventions. The evaluation exercise should look

at the impact of the project in target groups and their environment beyond the stated

goals, trying to understand any positive or negative unintended effects.



6 Commonly used project management tools initially developed for large and complex projects 54



The project cycle introduced here is a very common approach in the field of

development. There are others variants that feature slightly different divisions or naming

of the stages, or additional connections and loops between them.

The version presented here is a valid base to analyze the main goal of this work, the

choices of technology in development interventions. Regarding the first of the three

questions posed at the beginning of the chapter, when in the life of development

interventions decisions concerning the choice of technology are made, we see already

that they will most likely take place during the first three stages of the project cycle.

Stakeholder Analysis

Let us focus now on the second question regarding the choice of technology in

development interventions: who makes or influences the decisions. In order to answer

this question we have to understand who are the main actors typically involved in a

development project, and what their roles are.

One of the most important activities in development interventions is the

identification of people, groups, organizations, and institutions involved one way or

another in the project, especially if we have in mind that in the development context what

is important is that people themselves are the agents of their own change, and determine

the type and speed of that change. Stakeholder analysis is the name given to the tool

commonly used by development agencies to carry out this study. This tool facilitates not

only the identification of the key actors, but also the assessment of their level of support 55



or opposition to the project, and what is their likely behavior regarding the change to be

made.

In this section we will first describe the tool and later we will use it to identify the

stakeholders and their roles not for a specific development project –the typical

application—, but for a generic project. The goal is to figure out which of the

stakeholders involved in a development intervention would typically make decisions or

influence in some way the choice of technology.

There are a number of different approaches to the stakeholder analysis, but we are

going to explain and use here the proposal of the World Bank (Rietbergen-McCracken, et

al., 1997 module 2).

The first task, according to the World Bank, would be to identify all the potential

stakeholders of a project. From the perspective of the World Bank, an institution that

basically lends money, the list should include the borrower, beneficiaries, affected

groups, and other interest groups, including the Bank itself. Using the World Bank

perspective does not subtract generality to the approach, since in most development

interventions one or several institutions play the role of moneylender, be it a development

bank, a bilateral agency, a foundation, etc. The moneylender typically provides the

guidelines for the preparation and submission of the project proposal, including the

stakeholder analysis, and is in charge of project appraisal.

The Bank (Rietbergen-McCracken, et al., 1997) suggests answering the following

questions in order to make the list: 56



Who are potential beneficiaries?

Who might be adversely impacted?

Have vulnerable groups been identified?

Have supporters and opponents been identified?

What are the relationships among the stakeholders?

The second step would be to see the interests of each one of the stakeholders and the

potential impact, positive or negative, the project might have on those interests. These are

some questions suggested by the Bank (Rietbergen-McCracken, et al., 1997) for this step:

What are the stakeholders' expectations of the project?

What benefits are there likely to be for the stakeholders?

What resources might the stakeholder be able and willing to mobilize?

What stakeholder interests conflict with project goals?

The third step would be the assessment of the influence and importance of each

stakeholder for the success of the project. According to the World Bank (Rietbergen-

McCracken, et al., 1997), for each stakeholder group the following needs to be assessed:

Power and status (political, social, and economic);

Degree of organization;

Control of strategic resources;

Informal influence (e.g. personal connections);

Power relations with other stakeholders;

Importance to the success of the project.

Assessing the influence of each individual stakeholder means evaluating how much

power each has over the project, that is, what is the degree of control over the decision 57



making process, either directly or indirectly, that can make the implementation of the

project easier or harder. The influence may arise from a position of power, or from

informal connections with people in power.

The importance of each stakeholder for the project measures the degree of active

involvement by this stakeholder necessary for the achievement of the project goals. The

beneficiaries of a project are typically the most important for its success, since the project

exists in order to satisfy their needs. Oftentimes beneficiaries, with great level of

importance, have a relatively small level of influence – for example poor peasants in a

rural electrification project.

All the information collected in these three steps can be expressed in a visual way in

a table like this Stakeholder Analysis matrix proposed by the Bank. 58



Stakeholder Interest(s) at Effect of Project Importance of Stakeholder Degree of Influence of groups stake in relation on interest(s) for Success of Project Stakeholder over Project to project U= Unknown U=Unknown 1=Little/No importance 1=Little/No influence 2=Some importance 2=Some influence 3=Moderate importance 3=Moderate influence 4=Very important 4=Significant influence + 0 - 5=Critical player 5=Very influential



Table 1: Typical stakeholder table for a development project Source: Participatory Tools and Techniques. World Bank. Rietbergen-McCracken, 1997



Finally, the fourth step of the stakeholder analysis would be, from the Bank

perspective, the planning of the involvement of each stakeholder in the different phases

of the project. For that the Bank proposes filling out a table called participatory matrix

that typically looks like this one: 59



Type of participation Information-sharing Consultation Collaboration Empowerment Stage in Project (one-way flow) (two-way flow) (increasing control) (transfer of control over Process decisions and resources) Project Identification Preparation Appraisal Implementation, Supervision, and Monitoring

Table 2: Typical participatory matrix for a development project Source: Participatory Tools and Techniques. World Bank. Rietbergen-McCracken, 1997



There are four types of participation considered in the table. Stakeholders in the

information-sharing column will be provided with information about the project.

Stakeholders in the consultation column will be provided with information and their

opinions will be heard. Those in the collaboration column, otherwise called partnership,

are full partners in the specific stage of the project, have access to all the information and

discussions, and have a vote in the decisions made. Finally, stakeholders in the

empowerment column, often-called just control, are those who receive control, including

decision making, over specific tasks, but always under the supervision of the full

partners. Examples would be consultants hired to do research or prepare technical reports,

or contractors hired during the implementation phase.

The Bank (Rietbergen-McCracken, et al., 1997) provides several directives for the

involvement of stakeholders in the project according to their level of importance and

influence: 60



Stakeholders of high influence and high importance should be closely involved throughout to ensure their support for the project;

Stakeholders of high influence, low importance are not the target of the project but may oppose the intervention; they will therefore need, as appropriate, to be kept informed and their views acknowledged to avoid disruption or conflict;

Stakeholders of low influence, high importance require special efforts to ensure that their needs are met and their participation is meaningful; and

Stakeholders of low influence, low importance are unlikely to be closely involved in the project and require no special participation strategies (beyond any information-sharing strategies aimed at the "general public").

The Bank also recommends that the stakeholder analysis itself be done not only by

Bank staff, but also involving as much as possible other groups such as government

agencies, NGOs, academic institutions, etc, either bringing all of them together for

discussion, or through private hearings when there are sensitive issues to be discussed.

Overall the World Bank approach seems to make sense, and shows specific concern

for the participation of the important but less influential stakeholders, typically

beneficiaries of the project endowed with very limited resources.

Still, if we pay attention to the language, it says that stakeholders of high influence

and importance should be “closely involved” and even those of high influence and low

importance have to be “kept informed and their views acknowledged.” For those of low

influence and high importance the Bank talks of “special efforts to ensure their needs are

met and their participation is meaningful.” From the perspective of the World Bank the

most important thing is that the project goes through, and therefore stakeholders of high

influence are key. 61



Regarding this issue of stakeholders very important to the project but with low

influence, let us have a look at actual tools used to do the analysis. TeamUp-PCM is a

software application from a company called Team Technologies that assists with Project

Cycle Management processes. It is cited by Bell and Morse in their book Sustainability

indicators as an example for the carrying out of stakeholder analysis (Bell and Morse,

1999: 129). The table they use is reproduced below:



Table 3: Stakeholder Analysis table from TeamUp methodology and software Source: Sustainability Indicators. Bell and Morse, 1999



This table includes for each stakeholder one column called Value that measures its

importance for the project (1=lowest importance, 5=highest importance), and another 62



column called Power that measures its influence (1=lowest influence, 6=highest

influence). The tool automatically calculates another column called Impact that is the

product (multiplication) of Value and Power. Although Bell and Morse warn that this is a

very subjective value, they say that as a rule of thumb “any stakeholder with a score of

over 20 points in terms of impact should be taken seriously.” This represents a grave bias,

embedded in the methodology, towards powerful actors. A very important stakeholder

with the highest value (5) but low power (1) might not be granted the necessary level of

attention and involvement (impact=5).

After having described the stakeholder analysis tool, we are going to look at some

examples of its use in order to have a general idea of who are typically the actors

involved in each stage of a development intervention.

Let us first list typical stakeholders in development interventions:


* Donor agencies are the financers of the project, providing part or all of the money

needed to execute it. Although money from national governments or foundations is

often used in development projects, a great majority of them require some kind of

foreign financing, coming from donor agencies such as multilateral development

banks (World Bank, Asian Development Bank, Inter-American Development Bank,

etc), UN Agencies (UNDP, UNIDO, etc), bilateral agencies (USAID, DFID, etc), and

other donors such as foundations and big international NGOs. Donor agencies have

great power over development projects since they provide the funding. Without their

approval there is no project. 63




* Borrowers are those who ask for the money, submitting proposals for funding. For

relatively big projects the borrowers are typically national governments or their

agencies, and for smaller projects borrowers could be municipal and state

governments and even local NGOs or other type of local organizations. Borrowers are

also very important and have great influence over the project, since they propose it to

begin with, and often manage it from beginning to end.


* Civil society organizations that are involved in the project but are not direct

beneficiaries, such as local, national and international NGOs, private sector

organizations, professional groups, other civil society groups representing poor

sectors (Church leaders, trade unions, farmers’ unions), academic researchers,

politicians and political parties, communication media. Their level of importance and

influence varies greatly.


* Local beneficiaries are the directly affected groups, those who stand to benefit or lose

from the project. These often include the poor and the marginalized, representative

community-based organizations (CBOs), traditional and informal social networks,

and informal or temporary coalitions or social networks arising due to project

intervention. They are of the greatest importance for the project since they are

supposedly the reason why the project exists to begin with, but they have a low level

of influence in the existing power structure.

With this list of typical stakeholders in mind, let us look at our first example, a

private sector population project funded by the British ODA (Overseas Development 64



Administration), now known as DFID (Department for International Development). This

example is used by Montgomery in his book Resources in Social Development Practice

(Montgomery, 1996). Montgomery uses the table reproduced below to show the list of

identified stakeholders and their interests: 65



Interests Potential Relative project impact priorities of Secondary Stakeholders interest Ministry of Population * Achievement of targets (+) Welfare * Control over funds & activities (-) 3 * Avoid liability for any negative (-) reactions to contraceptive promotion Pharmaceutical companies, * Sales volume (+) & distributers * Profits (+/-) 2 * Public image (+/-) ODA * Institutional learning (+) * H & population objectives (+) * Short-term disbursements (-) 2 * Conserving staff inputs (?) * Avoid liability for any negative (-) reactions to contraceptive promotion Primary Stakeholders Lower-middle income * Reproductive choice (+) 1 groups * Cheaper contraceptives (-?) Women * Reproductive choice (+) * Enhanced health (+) 1 * Status (-/+) External stakeholders Islamic clergy * Social and religious influence (+/-) 4 Traditional birth attendants * Private incomes (-) 5

Explanatory note: As a private sector project, the Ministry may perceive a loss of control over resources. Several of the secondary stakeholders with positive interests in the project are wary of the social and religious influence of the clergy on public opinion (and therefore their image). The clergy are identified as a stakeholder group posing potential risks to the project.



Table 4: Stakeholder table for a private sector population project in Pakistan funded by ODA Source: Resources in Social Development Practice. Montgomery, 1996



The level of importance and influence of each one of the stakeholders is assessed

(according to ODA criteria) and based on that assessment the participation table is

designed for the project, as reproduced below: 66



Type of participation Stage in cycle Inform Consult Partnership Control * ODA * Pharmaceutical * Ministry of Identification companies Population & Welfare * ODA * Ministry of P&W * Womens groups * Pharmaceutical Planning * Clergy? * Health NGOs companies * Ministry of P&W * Health NGOs * Women's groups * Pharmaceutical Implementation * ODA * Clergy? companies * TCOs / PIU * Health NGOs * Women's groups * Pharmaceutical companies Monitoring & * TCOs / PIU * External Evaluation * ODA * Ministry * Ministry of P*W consultants

Table 5: Participation matrix for a private sector population project in Pakistan funded by ODA Source: Resources in Social Development Practice. Montgomery, 1996



For this participation matrix ODA considers together the preparation and appraisal

phases in what it calls planning. It is importance to notice how in the phases that are

critical for the definition of technological choices –as discussed above—, identification

and planning, the key stakeholders are ODA (the donor) and the Ministry of Population

and Welfare from the national government of the destination country (the borrower). The

purported beneficiaries, women’s groups, are not present at all in the identification phase,

and they are only to be consulted in the planning phase. On the other hand, very

influential but secondary stakeholders, the pharmaceutical companies, are to be consulted

during identification and become a full partner during the planning phase. 67



Our second example comes from DFID’s (former ODA) Guidance Manual on Water

Supply and Sanitation Projects and Programmes (Batteson, et al., 1998). The manual

shows an example of a Water Supply and Sanitation (WS&S) project, with the

stakeholder table reproduced below: 68



Table 6: Stakeholder table for Water Supply and Sanitation project funded by DFID Source: Guidance Manual on Water Supply and Sanitation Projects and Programmes. Batteson, 1998 69



After the level of importance and influence of the various stakeholders is evaluated

the participation matrix for the project is defined. It is reproduced below:



Table 7: Participation matrix for a Water Supply and Sanitation project funded by DFID Source: Guidance Manual on Water Supply and Sanitation Projects and Programmes. Batteson, 1998 70



In this second participation matrix we observe again how the donor (DFID) and the

borrower (Ministry of Water affairs) are present as partners in both phases were

alternatives are defined, identification and planning. In this case the purported

beneficiaries, community based organizations (CBOs) and women’s groups at least are to

be consulted during identification and become full partners during the planning phase.

Our third and final example comes from a book called Emergency Sanitation, based

on an emergency sanitation intervention that took place in Zambia in 2001 with the

involvement of DFID and Oxfam amongst others (Harvey, et al., 2002).

The authors propose a generic stakeholder table for this kind of projects that is

reproduced below: 71



Table 8: Stakeholder table for Emergency Sanitation projects Source: Emergency Sanitation. Harvey,
# 72



After the assessment of the levels of importance and influence of the different

players, a generic participatory matrix is proposed. It is reproduced here:



Table 9: Participatory matrix for an Emergency Sanitation Project Source: Emergency Sanitation. Harvey, 2002.



Since this type of intervention is considered emergency relief rather than

development, the identification of the needs or demands is different and definitely shorter

–there is urgent need. They call it Rapid assessment and priority setting. The remainder

phases are very similar, with the details of the intervention defined in the programme

design phase, then implementation, and finally monitoring and evaluation.

Again we see how in the first two phases, where alternative solutions can be

considered, the donor agency and the authorities (national, municipal or local 73



government) are major players at the level of partners. The beneficiaries, the community,

are only consulted in the first assessment phase, and become full partners in the design

phase.

From these three examples we can already infer something about who might be

involved in decisions having to do with the choice of technology. Those choices will

most likely be made during the identification, preparation and appraisal phases and, as we

have seen, the stakeholders that seem to be always important during those phases are the

donor, typically a multilateral development bank or bilateral development agency, and

the borrower, typically agencies from the national or regional government. These two

major stakeholders will have much to say regarding the choice of technology.

As for the beneficiaries, they do not seem to be an important partner in the

identification phase, although they might be during the planning phase. Their influence in

the decisions regarding the choice of technology will probably be limited.

Having the beneficiaries, especially when they have limited resources and education,

and limited organization capabilites, involved in the first phases of the project can be

frustrating for project managers and of low efficiency from their point of view. Bell and

Morse believe that all stakeholders should ideally provide their own assessment, but

acknowledge that this can be time consuming (Bell and Morse, 1999: 129). This is true,

but the full participation of the most important stakeholders, the beneficiaries and other

directly affected groups, is the key to achieve development according to their own 74



standards. In many cases a compromise will have to be reached between participation and

what project managers consider efficiency.

At this point we have already a rough answer to the first two questions posed about

the decisions regarding the choice of technology: when and by whom. As we have seen,

these decisions will most likely take place during the identification, planning and

appraisal stages of the project. The stakeholders that seem to be more important for those

decisions are the donor and the borrower. In some cases the beneficiaries might influence

those decisions too.

In order to know more details about the when and by whom, and to answer the third

question, using what criteria, the next chapter will analyze the procedures applied in

project analysis and appraisal. 75
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