Photovoltaic System for Internet applications Literature Review: Difference between revisions

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Literature

Energy Consumption in Access Networks

J. Baliga, R. Ayre, W. V. Sorin, K. Hinton, and R. S. Tucker, "Energy Consumption in Access Networks," Meetings

This paper presents a comparison of energy consumption of access networks. It considers passive optical networks, fiber to the node, point-to-point optical systems and WiMAX. Optical access technologies provide the most energy-efficient solutions.

Power consumption and energy efficiency in the internet

Hinton, K.; Baliga, J.; Feng, M.Z.; Ayre, R.W.A.; Tucker, RodneyS., "Power consumption and energy efficiency in the internet," Network, IEEE , vol.25, no.2, pp.6,12, March-April 2011 doi: 10.1109/MNET.2011.5730522

This article provides an overview of a network-based model of power consumption in Internet infrastructure. This model provides insight into how different parts of the Internet will contribute to network power as Internet access increase over time. The model shows that today the access network dominates the Internet's power consumption and, as access speeds grow, the core network routers will dominate power consumption. The power consumption of data centers and content distribution networks is dominated by the power consumption of data storage for material that is infrequently downloaded and by the transport of the data for material that is frequently downloaded. Based on the model several strategies to improve the energy efficiency of the Internet are presented.

Energy Consumption in Optical IP Networks

Baliga, J.; Ayre, R.W.A.; Hinton, K.; Sorin, W.V.; Tucker, RodneyS., "Energy Consumption in Optical IP Networks," Lightwave Technology, Journal of , vol.27, no.13, pp.2391,2403, July1, 2009 doi: 10.1109/JLT.2008.2010142

As community concerns about global energy consumption grow, the power consumption of the Internet is becoming an issue of increasing importance. In this paper, we present a network-based model of power consumption in optical IP networks and use this model to estimate the energy consumption of the Internet. The model includes the core, metro and edge, access and video distribution networks, and takes into account energy consumption in switching and transmission equipment. We include a number of access technologies, including digital subscriber line with ADSL2+, fiber to the home using passive optical networks, fiber to the node combined with very high-speed digital subscriber line and point-to-point optical systems. In addition to estimating the power consumption of today's Internet, we make predictions of power consumption in a future higher capacity Internet using estimates of improvements in efficiency in coming generations of network equipment. We estimate that the Internet currently consumes about 0.4% of electricity consumption in broadband-enabled countries. While the energy efficiency of network equipment will improve, and savings can be made by employing optical bypass and multicast, the power consumption of the Internet could approach 1% of electricity consumption as access rates increase. The energy consumption per bit of data on the Internet is around 75bm muJ at low access rates and decreases to around 2-4 bm muJ at an access rate of 100 Mb/s.

Combined low-cost, high-efficient inverter, peak power tracker and regulator for PV applications

Enslin, J.H.R.; Snyman, D.B., "Combined low-cost, high-efficient inverter, peak power tracker and regulator for PV applications," Power Electronics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.6, no.1, pp.73,82, Jan 1991 doi: 10.1109/63.65005

A novel compound power converter that serves as a DC-to-AC inverter, maximum power point tracker (MPPT), and battery charger for stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) power systems is introduced. A theoretical analysis of the proposed converter is performed, and the results are compared with experimental results obtained from a 1.5 kW prototype. The overall cost of PV systems can thus be reduced by using load management control and efficiency-optimization techniques. Power flow through the converter is controlled by means of a combination of duty cycle and output frequency control. With load management, large domestic loads, such as single phase induction motors for water pumping, hold-over refrigerators, and freezers, can be driven by day at a much higher energy efficiency. This is due to the high efficiency of the inverter with high insolation, and because the inverter uses the energy directly from the solar array. The battery loss component is thus reduced

Optimum sizing of photovoltaic-energy storage systems for autonomous small islands

J. K. Kaldellis, D. Zafirakis, and E. Kondili, “Optimum sizing of photovoltaic-energy storage systems for autonomous small islands”, International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 24–36, Jan. 2010.

The electrification of autonomous electrical networks is in most cases described by low quality of electricity available at very high production cost. Furthermore, autonomous electrical networks are subject to strict constraints posing serious limitations on the absorption of RES-based electricity generation. To by-pass these constraints and also secure a more sustainable electricity supply status, the concept of combining photovoltaic power stations and energy storage systems comprises a promising solution for small scaled autonomous electrical networks, increasing the reliability of the local network as well. In this context, the present study is devoted to develop a complete methodology, able to define the dimensions of an autonomous electricity generation system based on the maximum available solar potential exploitation at minimum electricity generation cost. In addition special emphasis is given in order to select the most cost-efficient energy storage configuration available. According to the calculation results obtained, one may clearly state that an optimum sizing combination of a PV generator along with an appropriate energy storage system may significantly contribute on reducing the electricity generation cost in several island electrical systems, providing also abundant and high quality electricity without the environmental and macroeconomic impacts of the oil-based thermal power stations.

Improved Energy Capture in Series String Photovoltaics via Smart Distributed Power Electronics

L. Linares, R. W. Erickson, S. MacAlpine, and M. Brandemuehl, “Improved Energy Capture in Series String Photovoltaics via Smart Distributed Power Electronics”, in Twenty-Fourth Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition, 2009. APEC 2009, 2009, pp. 904–910.

This paper proposes an improved module integrated converter to increase energy capture in the photovoltaic (PV) series string. Prototypes for self-powered, high efficiency dc-dc converters that operate with autonomous control for tracking the maximum power of solar panels locally and on a fine scale are simulated, built and tested. The resulting module is a low-cost, reliable smart PV panel that operates independently of the geometry and complexity of the surrounding system. The controller maximizes energy capture by selection of one of three possible modes: buck, boost and pass-through. Autonomous controllers achieve noninteracting maximum power point tracking and a constant string voltage. The proposed module-integrated converters are verified in simulation. Experimental results show that the converter prototype achieves efficiencies of over 95% for most of its operating range. A 3-module PV series string was tested under mismatched solar irradiation conditions and increases of up to 38% power capture were measured.

Photovoltaic converter system suitable for use in small scale stand-alone or grid connected applications

J. A. Gow and C. D. Manning, “Photovoltaic converter system suitable for use in small scale stand-alone or grid connected applications”, Electric Power Applications, IEE Proceedings -, vol. 147, no. 6, pp. 535–543, Nov. 2000.

Of the commercially-available solutions for the conversion of energy from photovoltaic arrays into a usable form, a large number consist of systems which have been developed for a dedicated application and are thus very inflexible. Those that are available as a generic module for use in a variety of environments are often restricted to a single mode of operation, for example utility supply only. A generic modular photovoltaic power conversion system is presented, aimed at single-phase applications which can supply passive AC and DC loads with a regulated voltage or by way of a maximum power tracking system with the maximum power available from the array. In addition a live AC load such as the utility can be supplied with maximum array power. The system is small, light and can be constructed from readily available components.

A study of maximum power point tracking algorithms for stand-alone Photovoltaic Systems

Mei Shan Ngan; Chee Wei Tan, "A study of maximum power point tracking algorithms for stand-alone Photovoltaic Systems," Applied Power Electronics Colloquium (IAPEC), 2011 IEEE , vol., no., pp.22,27, 18-19 April 2011 doi: 10.1109/IAPEC.2011.5779863

The Photovoltaic (PV) energy is one of the renewable energies that attracts attention of researchers in the recent decades. Since the conversion efficiency of PV arrays is very low, it requires maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control techniques to extract the maximum available power from PV arrays. In this paper, two categories of MPPT algorithms, namely indirect and direct methods are discussed. In addition to that, the advantages and disadvantages of each MPPT algorithm are reviewed. Simulations of PV modules were also performed using Perturb and Observe algorithm and Fuzzy Logic controller. The simulation results produced by the two algorithms are compared with the expected results generated by Solarex MSX60 PV modules. Besides that, the P-V characteristics of PV arrays under partial shaded conditions are discussed in the last section.

Novel maximum-power-point-tracking controller for photovoltaic energy conversion system

Yeong-Chan Kuo; Tsorng-Juu Liang; Jiann-Fuh Chen, "Novel maximum-power-point-tracking controller for photovoltaic energy conversion system," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.48, no.3, pp.594,601, Jun 2001 doi: 10.1109/41.925586

A novel maximum-power-point-tracking (MPPT) controller for a photovoltaic (PV) energy conversion system is presented. Using the slope of power versus voltage of a PV array, the proposed MPPT controller allows the conversion system to track the maximum power point very rapidly. As opposed to conventional two-stage designs, a single-stage configuration is implemented, resulting in size and weight reduction and increased efficiency. The proposed system acts as a solar generator on sunny days, in addition to working as an active power line conditioner on rainy days. Finally, computer simulations and experimental results demonstrate the superior performance of the proposed technique

Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy; latest developments in the building integrated and hybrid PV systems

A. Zahedi, Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy; latest developments in the building integrated and hybrid PV systems, Renewable Energy, Volume 31, Issue 5, April 2006, Pages 711-718, ISSN 0960-1481, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2005.08.007.

Environmental concerns are growing and interest in environmental issues is increasing and the idea of generating electricity with less pollution is becoming more and more attractive. Unlike conventional generation systems, fuel of the solar photovoltaic energy is available at no cost. And solar photovoltaic energy systems generate electricity pollution-free and can easily be installed on the roof of residential as well as on the wall of commercial buildings as grid-connected PV application. In addition to grid-connected rooftop PV systems, solar photovoltaic energy offers a solution for supplying electricity to remote located communities and facilities, those not accessible by electricity companies.

The interest in solar photovoltaic energy is growing worldwide. Today, more than 3500MW of photovoltaic systems have been installed all over the world. Since 1970, the PV price has continuously dropped [8]. This price drop has encouraged worldwide application of small-scale residential PV systems. These recent developments have led researchers concerned with the environment to undertake extensive research projects for harnessing renewable energy sources including solar energy. The usage of solar photovoltaic as a source of energy is considered more seriously making future of this technology looks promising.

The objective of this contribution is to present the latest developments in the area of solar photovoltaic energy systems. A further objective of this contribution is to discuss the long-term prospect of the solar photovoltaic energy as a sustainable energy supply.

Evaluating the limits of solar photovoltaics (PV) in electric power systems utilizing energy storage and other enabling technologies

Paul Denholm, Robert M. Margolis, Evaluating the limits of solar photovoltaics (PV) in electric power systems utilizing energy storage and other enabling technologies, Energy Policy, Volume 35, Issue 9, September 2007, Pages 4424-4433, ISSN 0301-4215, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2007.03.004.

In this work, we evaluate technologies that will enable solar photovoltaics (PV) to overcome the limits of traditional electric power systems. We performed simulations of a large utility system using hourly solar insolation and load data and attempted to provide up to 50% of this system's energy from PV. We considered several methods to avoid the limits of unusable PV that result at high penetration due to the use of inflexible baseload generators. The enabling technologies considered in this work are increased system flexibility, load shifting via demand responsive appliances, and energy storage.

An investigation of mismatch losses in solar photovoltaic cell networks

N.D. Kaushika, Anil K. Rai, An investigation of mismatch losses in solar photovoltaic cell networks, Energy, Volume 32, Issue 5, May 2007, Pages 755-759, ISSN 0360-5442, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2006.06.017.

Solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays in field conditions deliver lower power than the array rating. In this paper, the sensitivity of solar cell parameters in the variation of available power from the array is investigated. The parameters characteristic of aging and fresh cells used in prototype field systems have been used for computation of reduction in the available power. It is found that in series string the fractional power loss would increase from 2% to 12% with aging of solar cells. However, this fractional power loss may be reduced to 0.4–2.4% by an appropriate series-paralleling.

Effects of mismatch losses in photovoltaic arrays

Charles E. Chamberlin, Peter Lehman, James Zoellick, Gian Pauletto, Effects of mismatch losses in photovoltaic arrays, Solar Energy, Volume 54, Issue 3, March 1995, Pages 165-171, ISSN 0038-092X, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(94)00120-3.

Experimental and modeling results on the effects of mismatch losses in photovoltaic arrays are presented. Field tests conducted on each of the 192 modules are used to describe the variation in the properties of production run photovoltaic modules. Module specific estimates of a five-parameter module model are obtained by nonlinear regression. Mathematical models of four-module parallel string and series block photovoltaic array performance based on the five-parameter module model are developed and used to evaluate the variation in maximum output power and mismatch loss of arrays with random module orderings. Module maximum output power averaged 14% below the nameplate rating and exhibited a coefficient of variation of 2.1%. Mismatch losses were very small, never exceeding 0.53%. No differences between parallel string and series block arrays in array maximum output power were observed.

Forecasting photovoltaic array power production subject to mismatch losses

D. Picault, B. Raison, S. Bacha, J. de la Casa, J. Aguilera, Forecasting photovoltaic array power production subject to mismatch losses, Solar Energy, Volume 84, Issue 7, July 2010, Pages 1301-1309, ISSN 0038-092X, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2010.04.009.

The development of photovoltaic (PV) energy throughout the world this last decade has brought to light the presence of module mismatch losses in most PV applications. Such power losses, mainly occasioned by partial shading of arrays and differences in PV modules, can be reduced by changing module interconnections of a solar array. This paper presents a novel method to forecast existing PV array production in diverse environmental conditions. In this approach, field measurement data is used to identify module parameters once and for all. The proposed method simulates PV arrays with adaptable module interconnection schemes in order to reduce mismatch losses. The model has been validated by experimental results taken on a 2.2 kWp plant, with three different interconnection schemes, which show reliable power production forecast precision in both partially shaded and normal operating conditions. Field measurements show interest in using alternative plant configurations in PV systems for decreasing module mismatch losses.

How to Design and Build a Solar Battery Charger

http://solarjourneyusa.com/installguidesmall.php

The goal of these lessons is to clearly explain how to size and build a solar battery charging system. Most PV systems are grid connected, but here we focus on small, stand-alone arrays that charge a battery using either a Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT) or a conventional (PWM) charge controller. It is the ideal way to learn about solar power and batteries. We include handy information about pricing, component suggestions and links to high price/quality vendors. If you follow all the lessons in this course, you will be able to build your own array for about $7-8 per Watt and use it to charge your mobile phone, iPods and run other electrical devices. As long as you’re familiar with some basic terms like Volt (V), Amps (A) and Watts (W), this should be a piece of cake!

Residential photovoltaic energy storage system

Chiang, S.J.; Chang, K.T.; Yen, C.Y., "Residential photovoltaic energy storage system," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.45, no.3, pp.385,394, Jun 1998 doi: 10.1109/41.678996

This paper introduces a residential photovoltaic (PV) energy storage system, in which the PV power is controlled by a DC-DC power converter and transferred to a small battery energy storage system (BESS). For managing the power, a pattern of daily operation considering the load characteristic of the homeowner, the generation characteristic of the PV power, and the power-leveling demand of the electric utility is prescribed. The system looks up the pattern to select the operation mode, so that powers from the PV array, the batteries and the utility are utilized in a cost-effective manner. As for the control of the system, a novel control technique for the maximum power-point tracking (MPPT) of the PV array is proposed, in which the state-averaged model of the DC-DC power converter, including the dynamic model of the PV array, is derived. Accordingly, a high-performance discrete MPPT controller that tracks the maximum power point with zero-slope regulation and current-mode control is presented. With proposed arrangements on the control of the BESS and the current-to-power scaling factor setting, the DC-DC power converter is capable of combining with the BESS for performing the functions of power conditioning and active power filtering. An experimental 600 W system is implemented, and some simulation and experimental results are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed system

The vanadium redox-battery: an efficient storage unit for photovoltaic systems

Ch Fabjan, J Garche, B Harrer, L Jörissen, C Kolbeck, F Philippi, G Tomazic, F Wagner, The vanadium redox-battery: an efficient storage unit for photovoltaic systems, Electrochimica Acta, Volume 47, Issue 5, 3 December 2001, Pages 825-831, ISSN 0013-4686, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0013-4686(01)00763-0.

The ‘all vanadium redox flow system’ is a promising candidate for the storage of photovoltaic energy. The reversible cell voltage of 1.3–1.4 V in charged state is well established at various electrode materials in particular carbon based substrate. The kinetics and mechanism were studied for the V2+/V3+ and VO++/VO2+ (V4+/V5+) couples and a one-electron transfer identified as the rate-determining step at smooth surface. The use of activation layers (carbon cloth, felt, etc.) decisively reduced the polarization. Catalysts, which are required for an increase of the reaction rate and the elimination of undesired side reactions, e.g. Ru(O)2 improved the behavior of the positive electrode. The influence of the separator material on mass transfer phenomena (diffusion, migration) and the charge–discharge characteristics were investigated. The requirements to be met as stand alone batteries for the energy supply of users in combination with photovoltaic plants considering the solar irradiation conditions in south Portugal were discussed and the future development goals defined.

Possible use of vanadium redox-flow batteries for energy storage in small grids and stand-alone photovoltaic systems

Ludwig Joerissen, Juergen Garche, Ch. Fabjan, G. Tomazic, Possible use of vanadium redox-flow batteries for energy storage in small grids and stand-alone photovoltaic systems, Journal of Power Sources, Volume 127, Issues 1–2, 10 March 2004, Pages 98-104, ISSN 0378-7753, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.09.066.

The all-vanadium redox-flow battery is a promising candidate for load leveling and seasonal energy storage in small grids and stand-alone photovoltaic systems. The reversible cell voltage of 1.3 to 1.4 V in the charged state allows the use of inexpensive active and structural materials. In this work, studies on the performance of inexpensive active materials for use in vanadium redox-flow batteries are reported. Additionally, a cost analysis for a load leveling and a seasonal energy storage system is given based on a flow battery technology well established in Zn-flow batteries.

Energy storage systems—Characteristics and comparisons

H. Ibrahim, A. Ilinca, J. Perron, Energy storage systems—Characteristics and comparisons, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 12, Issue 5, June 2008, Pages 1221-1250, ISSN 1364-0321, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2007.01.023.

Electricity generated from renewable sources, which has shown remarkable growth worldwide, can rarely provide immediate response to demand as these sources do not deliver a regular supply easily adjustable to consumption needs. Thus, the growth of this decentralized production means greater network load stability problems and requires energy storage, generally using lead batteries, as a potential solution. However, lead batteries cannot withstand high cycling rates, nor can they store large amounts of energy in a small volume. That is why other types of storage technologies are being developed and implemented. This has led to the emergence of storage as a crucial element in the management of energy from renewable sources, allowing energy to be released into the grid during peak hours when it is more valuable.

The work described in this paper highlights the need to store energy in order to strengthen power networks and maintain load levels. There are various types of storage methods, some of which are already in use, while others are still in development. We have taken a look at the main characteristics of the different electricity storage techniques and their field of application (permanent or portable, long- or short-term storage, maximum power required, etc.). These characteristics will serve to make comparisons in order to determine the most appropriate technique for each type of application.

=Steady-state performance of a grid-connected rooftop hybrid wind-photovoltaic power system with battery storage

Giraud, F.; Salameh, Z.M., "Steady-state performance of a grid-connected rooftop hybrid wind-photovoltaic power system with battery storage," Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on , vol.16, no.1, pp.1,7, Mar 2001 doi: 10.1109/60.911395

This paper reports the performance of a 4-kW grid-connected residential wind-photovoltaic system (WPS) with battery storage located in Lowell, MA, USA. The system was originally designed to meet a typical New-England (TNE) load demand with a loss of power supply probability (LPSP) of one day in ten years as recommended by the Utility Company. The data used in the calculation was wind speed and irradiance of Login Airport Boston (LAB) obtained from the National Climate Center in North Carolina. The present performance study is based on two-year operation. (May 1996-Apr 1998) of the WPS. Unlike conventional generation, the wind and the sunrays are available at no cost and generate electricity pollution-free. Around noontime the WPS satisfies its load and provides additional energy to the storage or to the grid. On-site energy production is undoubtedly accompanied with minimization of environmental pollution, reduction of losses in power systems transmission and distribution equipment, and supports the utility in demand side management. This paper includes discussion on system reliability, power quality, loss of supply and effects of the randomness of the wind and the solar radiation on system design

Energy analysis of batteries in photovoltaic systems. Part I: Performance and energy requirements

Carl Johan Rydh, Björn A. Sandén, Energy analysis of batteries in photovoltaic systems. Part I: Performance and energy requirements, Energy Conversion and Management, Volume 46, Issues 11–12, July 2005, Pages 1957-1979, ISSN 0196-8904, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2004.10.003.

The technical performance and energy requirements for production and transportation of a stand alone photovoltaic (PV)-battery system at different operating conditions are presented. Eight battery technologies are evaluated: lithium-ion (Li-ion), sodium–sulphur (NaS), nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), lead–acid (PbA), vanadium-redox (VRB), zinc–bromine (ZnBr) and polysulfide-bromide (PSB). In the reference case, the energy requirements for production and transport of PV-battery systems that use the different battery technologies differ by up to a factor of three. Production and transport of batteries contribute 24–70% to the energy requirements, and the PV array contributes 26–68%. The contribution from other system components is less than 10%. The contribution of transport to energy requirements is 1–9% for transportation by truck, but may be up to 73% for air transportation. The energy requirement for battery production and transport is dominant for systems based on NiCd, NiMH and PbA batteries. The energy requirements for these systems are, therefore, sensitive to changes in battery service life and gravimetric energy density. For systems with batteries with relatively low energy requirement for production and transportation (Li-ion, NaS, VRB, ZnBr, PSB), the battery charge–discharge efficiency has a larger impact. In Part II, the data presented here are used to calculate energy payback times and overall battery efficiencies of the PV-battery systems.

Optimum photovoltaic array size for a hybrid wind/PV system

Borowy, B.S.; Salameh, Z.M., "Optimum photovoltaic array size for a hybrid wind/PV system," Energy Conversion, IEEE Transactions on , vol.9, no.3, pp.482,488, Sep 1994 doi: 10.1109/60.326466

A methodology for calculation of the optimum size of a PV array for a stand-alone hybrid wind/PV power system is developed. Long term data of wind speed and irradiance recorded for every hour of the day for 30 years were used. These data were used to calculate the probability density functions of the wind speed and the irradiance for each hour of a typical day in a month. The wind speed and irradiance probability density functions and manufacturer's specification on a wind turbine and a PV module were used to calculate the average power generated by the wind turbine and the PV module for each hour of a typical day in a month. The least square method is used to determine the best fit of the PV array and wind turbine to a given load. On the basis of the energy concept an algorithm was developed to find the optimum size of the PV array in the system

References