Lives Saved by Replacing Coal with PV

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Literature Review

Coal Life Cycle: Adverse effects on human health

Health impacts of coal and coal use: possible solutions

Finkelman, R., Orem, W., Castranova, V., Tatu, C., Belkin, H., Zheng, B., Lerch, H., Maharaj, S., Bates, A. (2002). "Health impacts of coal and coal use: possible solutions," International Journal of Coal Geology, 50(1-4), 425-443.

coal will continue to be used by developing nations as primary energy source
First part: human health impacts due to burning coal in coal stoves in homes
Coal combustion in homes has caused severe human health problems due to high levels of arsenic, fluorine, selenium, and mercury
groundwater leaches toxic organic compounds from coal causing adverse health conditions such as: Balkan endemic nephropathy (found mainly in rural communities in Bosnia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania, Serbia
Coal Workers' Pneumoconiosis- lung disease directly unique to coal mining; inhaled dust particulates

Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution

Pope, C.a., Burnett, R., Thun, M., Calle, E., Krewski, D., Ito, K., Thurston, G. (2002) "Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution," The Journal of the American Medical Association, 287(9), 1132-1141.

This study focuses on long-term exposure of PM2.5 or less
data collected after new standard for PM2.5 in place- requiring sites to collect data on this size
assessing mortality of target areas
generated models based on different levels of PM2.5 in different decades
Overal PM2.5 decreased over time- largest decrease observed in cities with highest levels of pollution in 1979-1983 years
Several great figures to view comparable mortality levels- stepwise regression for demographic factors and smoking vs former smoker vs non-smoker
Shows high association of risk for lung cancer and cardiopulmonary mortality and long-term exposure to fine particulate matter
doubling the time of follow-up researchers saw mortality numbers triple due to the causes listed above- relative to other studies

Carbon emission and mitigation cost comparisons between fossil fuel, nuclear and renewable energy resources for electricity generation

Sims, R., Rogner, H., Gregory, K. (2003). "Carbon emission and mitigation cost comparisons between fossil fuel, nuclear and renewable energy resources for electricity generation," Energy Policy, 31(13), 1315-1326.

Global electricity sector responsible for release of 7700 million + tons of carbon dioxide annually
mitigation tactics exist: more efficient conversion of fossil fuels, use of low carbon fossil fuels, decarbonization of fuels and flue gases, increasing nuclear power, and increasing use of renewable sources of energy
Table 1 provides total emission production due to different electrical generation from 1971-2020. Given in TWh
Table 2 provides cost estimates and emission reduction of mitigation technologies in comparison to coal

China's burning ambition

Aldhous, P. (2005). "China's burning ambition," Nature, 435, 1152-1154.

Extremely poor air quality
economic growth outstripping energy supplies
more than 6,000 workers were killed in mines in 2004
Between 75% and 80% of electricity is generated from coal, in China
Predictions for energy demand to rise to 3.5 billion tons of coal per year in 2020- does not provide what current energy demand is
Attempts to improve efficiency by using "cleaner coal"- not utilizing alternatives
does not provide mortality rates other than due to mining practices

Submicron ash formation from coal combustion

Buhre, B., Hinkley, J., Gupta, R., Wall, T., Nelson, P. "Submicron ash formation from coal combustion," Fuel, 84(10), 1206-1214.

submicron sized particulate matter are primarily formed by volatilised ash, soot, and char particles
This is experiment that burns bituminous coals to determine influence of coal characteristics and combustion environment on submicron ash yield
obtained ash with different chemical compositions due to varying combustion environments
This experiment does not address health implications of they different kinds of ash formed during combustion; in some cases, less volatile material was transformed to higher volatile material due to conditions

The global burden of disease due to outdoor air pollution

Cohen, A., Anderson, H., Ostra, B. Pandy, K., Krzyzanowski, M., Kunzli, N., Futschmidt, K., Pope, A., Romieu, I., Samet, J., Smith, K. (2005). " The global burden of disease due to outdoor air pollution," Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 68 (13-14), 1-7.

air pollution from combustion of fossil fuels causes range of adverse health effects from "eye irritation to death"
man-made combustion of fossil fuels creates mixture of toxic chemicals, namely particulate matter
study focuses on mortality (death) due to inhaled particulate matter
mortality in this study is due to cardiopulmonary, lung cancer, or acute respiratory infections in children
results include: 3% of adult mortality due to cardiopulmonary, 5% of lung cancer (includes tracheal, bronchial), 1% acute respiratory in children
0.8 million premature deaths and 6.4 million lost life years (not really defined here)
author's point their results may be underestimation of what is actually occurring (due to fact that they only assessed mortality- not acute infections or serious morbidity)
great mortality rates found in developing countries

Adverse health effects of outdoor air pollutants

Curtis, L., Rea, W., Smith-Willis, P., Fenyves, E., Pan, Y. (2006). "Adverse health effects of outdoor air pollutants," Environment International, 32(6), 815-830.

Review article- good information and different case studies of different health affects correlation with certain outdoor air pollutants
Check for updated adult inhalation stat
outdoor air pollution due to motor vehicles and industrial chemicals
high prevalence of outdoor air pollution developing countries
Air pollutants included in this assessment

particulates- combustion from industry, construction, pesticides, bioaerosols; toxicity depends on size- with smaller particulates considered more toxic
ozone
carbon Monoxide
sulfur oxides- produced by burning of coal, vehicle emissions, emissions from oil/gas fields
nitrogen oxides-industrial/vehicle combustion
lead
volatile organic compounds, solvents, pesticides, and methane

Health effects covered in study- increased risk due to outdoor air pollution

Respiratory due to particulates, ozone, sulfur/nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide
Cardiovascular system effects due to particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen oxide
Lung cancer due to particulate matter, nitrogen oxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Reproductive and developmental effects
Neurological and neuropsychiatric effects
Mortality- cite several studies that show increase in mortality and morbidity in response to increase in particulate matter- check data, but consistent studies show increase in 10ug/m3 particulate matter produced these results
Infection
Other health effects such as hematological (blood) and immunological

A guide to life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from electric supply technologies

Weisser, D. (2007). "A guide to life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from electric supply technologies," Energy, 32(9), 1543-1559.

provide life cycle analysis of different electrical generation technologies to produce more accurate emissions per kwh
GHG emissions for four coal technologies: pulverized fuel, fluidised bed combustion, integrated coal gasification combined cycle, and steam turbine condensing
For PF: 750-1300 gcarbon dioxide per kwh, IGCC: 600-800 g carbon dioxide per kwh, FBC:700-1000 g carbon dioxide per kwh, STC:750 g carbon dioxide per kwh
for fossil fuel tech, majority of ghg emissions comes from operation of power plant
present coal operation stage: 800-1000 g carbon dioxide per kwh,
solar pv: 40-73 g carbon dioxide per kwh
provides nuclear, wind, hydro, biomass, and oil if need for comparison
many recommendations including- increased renewables, increase nuclear, increase efficiency of fossil fuel plants

Mortality from heart, respiratory, and kidney disease in coal mining areas of Appalachia

Hendryx, M. (2007). "Mortality from heart, respiratory, and kidney disease in coal mining areas of Appalachia," International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 82(2), 243-249.

environmental pollutants correlated with high risk of heart, respiratory, and kidney disease
particulate matter from coal mining associated with health hazards
This study assesses whether higher rates of mortality and morbidity are due to smoking, sociodemographic factors, or residence/exposure to coal mining
significantly higher mortality (death rates) in Appalachian mining areas, higher chronic heart, respiratory, and kidney disease

Electricity generation and health

Markandya, A., Wilkinson, P. (2007) "Electricity generation and health", The Lancet, 370(9591), 979-990.

electricity may have contributed to economic development and increases in overall well being- it comes with adverse effects on health
article splits between developed and developing nations
Pathway of emissions- methods of paper

emissions from power source are dispersed- temperature, precipitation, wind speed all factor on dispersal
health burden assessed- in each phase: extraction of fuel, transportation, transforming to electricity,
estimates of air pollution effects
value effects in monetary terms- to best of ability

Developed nations

Fuel cycles given for coal, lignite, oil/gas, biomass, an nuclear
focusing here on coal and lignite

occupational health effects with mining
12% of coal miners develop several potentially fatal diseases (found on page 981)
primary and secondary particles- sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides among other particles

Coal contributions to carbon dioxide- direct emissions-960 g/kWh, indirect- 330 g/kWh
Deaths from air pollution and accidents involving workers and public for coal- ~25TWh
Accident related deaths percentages provided: 44% deaths for public, 99% for workers
Serious illness from air pollution for coal- ~225TWh
Air pollution from coal: deaths, serious illness, minor illness percentages provided: 85%, 84%, and 94% respectively

Developing nations

case studies in China, India, and Brazil
China- from coal-fired plant- 77 deaths per TWh, severe morbidity (def for this paper found on page 984)- 975 per TWh compared to 225 per TWh in Europe
provides health effects of renewables- focus here on solar
limited health effects addressed- only concerns with production, handling, and disposal of PV materials

A global perspective on energy: health effects and injustices

Wilkinson, P., Smith, K., Joffe, A., Haines, A. (2007). "A global perspective on energy: health effects and injustices", The Lancet, 370(9591), 965-978.

energy production/use poses health risks through industrial hazards, pollution, and injury
while substantial burden on a global scale, there are differences between rich and poor nations
climate change effects- flooding, acid rainfall, droughts, extreme weather events that all have adverse effects on populations
risks associated with energy are found in extraction, transportation, and burning of fossil fuels
80% of energy use is oil, gas, and coal
risks from drilling, mining, and harvesting of resources are less than risks from other steps in the fuel cycle
risks lessened from fossil fuel burning in developed nations, however developing nations see rapid growth coupled with low environmental regulations so high risk
16/20 most polluted cities are in china- see page 7 for numbers of lives lost or years lost due to pollution
climate change deaths-cited in paper from WHO- is ~150,000, 99% of these are in poor countries- this is 2000 data

Mortality Rates in Appalachian Coal Mining Counties: 24 Years Behind the Nation

Hendryx, M. (2008). "Mortality Rates in Appalachian Coal Mining Counties: 24 Years Behind the Nation," Environmental Justice, 1(1), 5-11.

coal mining areas linked to higher hospitalization rates
This study looks at mortality rates, and tries to determine if increases are a cause of coal mining practices
Retrospective study from years: 1979-2004
Mortality rates include: deaths due to homicide, suicide, motor vehicle accident, and other
Mortality rates (per 100,000 people) highest in heavy coal mining areas of Appalachia, lowest in non-coal mining areas
5048 excess annual deaths in Appalachia coal mining areas from 1999-2004
Interesting inclusion: age-adjusted mortality rates for Appalachian coal mining lags about 24 years behind national rates outside Appalachia
Figure 2 shows mortality rates over time due to coal, rates in Appalachia, and the nation

Human health effects of air pollution

Kampa, M., Castanas, E. (2008). "Human health effects of air pollution." Environmental Pollution, 151(2), 362-367.

air pollutant defined as: substance that harms organisms
pollutants contribute to increase mortality, illness, or other hazards
pollutants grouped into 4:

Gaseous pollutants
Persistent organic pollutants
Heavy metals
Particulate matter

for this article focus on gaseous pollutants and particulate matter caused by burning fossil fuels
burning coal results in release of sulfur dioxide
gaseous pollutants mainly cause respiratory problems, but more severe problems are haematological (related to blood) and cancerous
particulate matter: sources are: factories, power plants, incinerators, vehicles
size of particles determines where in respiratory tract they will deposit
strong evidence to support that ultra fine and fine particles more hazardous that larger ones- mortality, heart, and respiratory problems
absorbed through inhalation and ingestion
effects range: nausea, difficulty breathing, skin irritation, cancer, developmental delays, death
Article addresses air pollutant effects on respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous, urinary, and digestive systems
impacts determined by a number of factors: type, concentration, length of exposure, and susceptibility

Estimating the health impacts of coal-fired power plants receiving international financing

Penney, Sarah, Jacob Bell, and John Balbus. (2009). "Estimating the health impacts of coal-fired power plants receiving international financing." Report at ENVIRONMENTAL DEFENCE FUND.

Study that estimates emissions and consequential deaths from heart and lung disease/cancer-specifically attributed to 88 public-financed coal-fired power plants
Used populations with varying distances from plant
Factored in air pollution control technologies
~6000 to 10,700 annual deaths to air pollution from these 88 plants
Table 1 provides great breakdown of top three emissions from coal: PM, SO2, NO2 and the attributable health outcomes plus mortality in each case
estimate that if all 88 plants used pollution control, deaths would drop to ~2710
Table 2 provides coal plants with 3 largest contributions to mortality- developing nations
Only go to 1000km radius from plant- not any further

Mortality due to lung, laryngeal and bladder cancer in towns lying in the vicinity of combustion installations

Perez, J., Pollan, M., Boldo, E., Gomez, B., Aragones, N., Lope, V., Ramis, R., Vidal, E., Abente G. (2009). "Mortality due to lung, laryngeal and bladder cancer in towns lying in the vicinity of combustion installations," Science of the Total Environment, 407(8), 2593-2602.

Standardized mortality rations from 1994-2003, estimated population exposure to pollution, proximity to plant- located in Spain
Look at several types of combustion- will focus on coal for this paper
Total deaths- not controlled: from 1994-2003: 172142 deaths due to lung cancer, 18175 to laryngeal cancer, 38396 due to bladder cancer
Table 1, 2, 3 show observed cases for towns located within certain distances of combustion cites
Found that lung cancer- significant risk for any fuel combustion, laryngeal cancer is higher when exposed to coal combustion
overall excess risk to combustion of coal
Observed deaths less than 5km from coal: total- ~1107, from oil/gas/natural gas as fuel: 2582, coal and other fuels: 400

Coal's assault on human health

Lockwood, A., Welker-Hood, K., Rauch, M., Gottlieb, B. (2009). "Coal's assault on human health," Report from Physicians For Social Responsibility, 3-16.

Four of five leading causes of mortality: heart disease, cancer, stroke, chronic lower respiratory diseases
Health effects associated with each aspect of coals life cycle: mining, hauling, preparation, combustion, disposal
Coal mining leads industries in fatal injuries
Transportation: engines and trucks release over 600,000 tons of nitrogen oxide, 50000 tons of particulate matter
coal combustion: 30% of carbon dioxide pollution
Table 1 has great description of adverse health effects- along with components of coal combustion that contribute
Indirect effects of coal combustion through climate change: WHO estimates; 166000 deaths in 2000 due to mortality from malaria, malnutrition, diarrhea, drowning
Table 2 shows predicted and expanded health effects from climate change

The impacts of combustion emissions on air quality and climate - from coal to biofuels and beyond

Gaffney, J., Marley, N. (2009). "The impacts of combustion emissions on air quality and climate - from coal to biofuels and beyond," Atmospheric Environment, 43(1), 23-36.

2.1 pounds of carbon dioxide emitted per kWh of coal output- these are 1998 levels
provides background information on coal formation and uses- however does not list human health impact statistics from coal
broad review

Air pollution in the last 50 years- from local to global

Fenger, J. (2009). "Air pollution in the last 50 years- from local to global," Atmospheric Environment, 43(1), 13-22.

Size of particles significant in determine how far particles travel into respiratory system- adverse health effects in humans
particles with size below PM2.5 have significant impact on people suffering from respiratory, cardio-pulmonary diseases, and daily mortality (death)
in modern times, causes nearly 100 extra deaths per 1 million people
air pollution is not a local problem- it has not boundaries-
combustion of fossil fuels contributes heavily to carbon dioxide in atmosphere- increasing global climate change

Higher coronary heart disease and heart attack morbidity in Appalachian coal mining regions

Hendryx, M., Zullig, K. (2009). "Higher coronary heart disease and heart attack morbidity in Appalachian coal mining regions," Preventive Medicine, 49(5), 355-359.

high risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) correlated with coal mining areas
factors include environmental, behavioral, genetic, demographic, and available healthcare
Coal mining areas linked to low socioeconomic status relative to non-coal mining areas
elements that contribute to CVD: arsenic, cadmium, non-specific particulate matter, and polycyclic hydrocarbons- all present in coal and introduced to areas with coal extraction and processing
Study controls for factors such as smoking, obsesity, co-morbid diabetes, alcohol consumption (does a before and after)
after adjusting for other factors, risk of CVD remained high in coal mining areas of Appalachia
study found that environmental pollution attributed to higher prevalence of CVD risk; however coal mining risks were also specific to Appalachia and not other mining (does not specify what kind of mining) regions in U.S.
uses self-reported data- so does not include mortality rates in coal-mining areas of Appalachia

Uncertainty and variability in health-related damages from coal-fired power plants in united states

Levy, J., Baxter, L., Schwartz, J. (2009). "Uncertainty and variability in health-related damages from coal-fired power plants in united states," Risk Analysis, 29(7), 1000-1014.

This study models and monetized damages associated with coal-fired plants across U.S. (407 power plants to be exact)
Focus on PM2.5 (fine particle) and its health related effects, provide estimate of economic value of a statistical life, used 1999 PM2.5 levels
Used emissions from electricity generation, coal had to be primary fuel; 407 plants with three indicators- 11.7 million tons of sulfur dioxide, 5.0 million tons of nitrogen oxides, 600,000 tons of PM2.5, selected plants emitted over 90% of the national PM2.5, SO2 emissions
Variation of previous study-slope changes of 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 micrograms/meters cubed; found a 1.2% increase in mortality per microgram/m-cubed increase of annual average PM2.5-by characterizing uncertainty as within individual plants as well as across all plants; factors in population exposure
Calculated median health-related damages- based on 1999 emissions: $0.02-$1.57 per kWh with highest values found in Midwest
Damages per kWh: 75% of total for sulfur dioxide, 14% for PM2.5, 8% for nitrogen oxides (if want specifics, ranges are provided for each on pg 1010
Study finds that improvements to technologies (again based on 1999 data) would result in ~2000 fewer deaths per year

Mountaintop mining consequences

Palmer, M., Berhardt, E., Schlesinger, W., Eshleman, K, Foufoula-Georgiou, E., Hendryx, M., Lemly, A., Likens, G., Loucks, O., Power, M., White, P. Wilcock, P. (2010). "Mountaintop mining consequences", Science, 327, 148-149

30 year increase in surface mining
specifically in Appalachia to find buried coal
Ecological losses, downstream impacts- forests destroyed, burial of headwater streams, more than 5-10% of watershed areas affected by mining
Human health impacts: water samples show groundwater with higher levels of chemicals from mining- when compared to non-mining areas in same region
Toxins show up in fish, airborne toxins
Hospitalizations due to chronic pulmonary disorders (potential blod clotting), hypertension (high blood pressure)
Higher rates of mortality, lung cancer, heart, lung, kidney disease

Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease an update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association

Brook, R., Rajagopalan, S., Pope, C.A., Brook, J., Bhatnagar, A., Diez-Roux, A., Holguin, F., Hong, Y., Luepker, R., Mittleman, M., Peters, A., Sicovick, D., Smith, S., Whitsel, Laurie., Kaufman, J. (2010). "Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease an update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association," Circulation, 121, 2331-2378.

PM2.5 leads to 800,000 premature deaths per year (13th leading cause of worldwide mortality)- main source is combustion of fossil fuels
short-term PM exposure: cardiovascular diseases account for 69% of increase in mortality rates, 28% for pulmonary diseases
Table 3- great summary of several studies on mortality increases with exposure to PM2.5
Long-term exposure to PM2.5 decreases life expectancy from months to several years

Estimating the Global Public Health Implications of Electricity and Coal Consumption

Gohlke, J., Thomas, R., Woodward, A., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Pruss-Ustun, A., Hales, S., Portier, C. (2011). "Estimating the Global Public Health Implications of Electricity and Coal Consumption," Environmental Health Perspectives, 119(6), 821-826.

Public health impacts of fossil fuel based power generation represent 70% of the external costs associated
There are direct health impacts due to particulate matter and other emissions during power generation
Cited 2010 National Research Council: 2005 total costs of externalities total $120 billion (double check to see if these are valuation estimates or include costs such as hospital/medical charges
Same source to double check $30/ton of carbon dioxide climate related damages
Environmental burden of disease, disability adjusted life years and total mortality all included in results
Figure 2- good description of life expectancy and infant mortality over time
Results: coal consumption negatively affects health; even with controls to reduce PM and sulfur oxides, coal plants still generate large amounts of air pollution; more carbon intensive than any other energy system

Full cost accounting for the life cycle of coal

Epstein, P., Buonocore, J., Eckerle, K., Hendryx, M., Stout B., Heinberg, R., Clapp, R., May, B., Reinhart, N., Ahern, M., Doshi, S., Glustrom, L. (2011). "Full cost accounting for the life cycle of coal," Ecological Economics Reviews, 1219, 73-98.

Coal predominant fuel for electric generation
2005- coal use generated 7334 TWh, 7.856 Gt carbon dioxide emissions from electricity, 3.124 Gt of carbon dioxide from non electrical generation
coal mined in 25 U.S. states, with Appalachia comprising newer mining models- mountaintop removal
Coal produces 1.5 times more carbon dioxide emissions than oil, and 2x more than natural gas
Coal mining and combustion releases harmful materials that affect the climate, toxic metals and particulate matter- harms public health,ecological systems
This study conducts a life cycle analysis of coal- measurable, quantifiable, and qualitative costs of coal
Climate impacts for social costs of carbon=- $30/ton of carbon range from $10-$100
Hazards come from extraction, processing, transportation, combustion, occupational hazards from underground mining, mountaintop removal
great table on pages 78-79 of economic, human health, and environmental effects at each stage of the coal life cycle
coal produces damages ~$2.2 billion in social costs from carbon
coal combustion waste or fly ash- toxic chemicals and heavy metals- cancer, birth defects, reproductive disorders, neurological damage, development issues, kidney and diabetes
includes local water contamination, carcinogen emissions, and community health effects
ecological impacts reviewed if necessary
combustion- carbon dioxide, methane, particulates, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, mercury- reviews effects from each
huge contributor to climate change
conclusion from life cycle analysis: $345.3 billion- 17.8 cents/kWh. Low estimate: $175 billion, a little over $0.09/kWh (these are conservative estimates where closer costs amount to $523.3 billion, $0.27/kWh

Public Health Impacts of Combustion Emissions in the United Kingdom

Yim, S., Barrett, S. (2012). "Public Health Impacts of Combustion Emissions in the United Kingdom," Environmental Science and Technology, 46(8), 4291-4296

PM2.5 is the air pollutant most consistently and strongly correlated with premature death
Premature mortality estimated in this study for UK- 2007 data
For this paper will only focus on power generation- other factors included: commercial, residential, agricultural, industry, road transport, other transport
Avg PM2.5 concentration for each sector displaying Fig 1
premature deaths due to combustion in power sector: 1700 . Total UK combustion 9000 deaths annually
important to note the transboundary effects apprx 2micrograms per meters cubed comes from non UK EU sources
Also includes economic impacts of combustion emissions: ~6-62 billion pounds/year

Air pollution and early deaths in the United States. Part I: Quantifying the impact of major sectors in 2005

Caiazzo, F., Ashok, A., Waitz, I., Yim, S., Barrett, S. (2013). "Air pollution and early deaths in the United States. Part I: Quantifying the impact of major sectors in 2005," Atmospheric Environment, 79, 198-208.

ambient PM2.5 associated with premature death and morbidity outcomes
2010- EPA estimates (double check source)- ~160,000 premature deaths to PM2.5
This study looks at several sectors of PM2.5- based on 2005 emissions- since replacing coal with PV as source of electrical generation, focusing only on electrical sector
Table 3 shows total PM2.5 concentrations, based on population. Electrical sector: 2.27 of 8.73 microgram per meter cubed- this was largest contribute to PM2.5 in 2005
Table 4- provides preamture deaths total in U.S. in 2005 due to long term exposure to PM2.5- 52,200
Table 5 shows premature mortalities and mortality rate (# of deaths per 100,000 ppl) for the lower 48- each sector. Kentucky largest mortality rate (39.7), Ohio largest number of premature deaths (4223)

Energy and human health

Smith, K., Frumkin, H., Balakrishnan, K., Butler, C., Chafe, Z., Fairlie, I., Kinney, P., Kjellstrom, T., Mauzerall, D., McKone, T., McMichael, A., Schneider, M. (2013). "Energy and human health," Annual Review of Public Health, 34, 159-188.

Provides great picture of fuel cycle- primary and secondary coupled with adverse health effects at each stage
Electricity considered secondary source of energy as traditionally formed from combustion of fossil fuels
Factor in household fuel use- such as coal for cooking- indoor air pollution here
Health effects from fossil fuels span across life cycle: mining to transport to combustion to waste management
Coal: major energy source: ~25% energy use, ~40% of electrical use, ~40% contribution to climate change through carbon dioxide
Coal mining dangerous to workers: ~15,000 mining injuries per year, ~3800-6000 premature deaths per year in China (numbers correct have direct source in lit rev)
Injuries from mining accidents (explosions, floods, falling rocks, misuse of machinery) and respiratory exposures to silica and coal dust, along with risk of lung cancer
Areas near coal mining operations report higher risk of CVD, pulmonary, kidney diseases
Once transported for electricity- occupational hazards include:dust and carcinogen exposure
Combustion: cited as heaviest health burden- double check source- carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur and nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, mercury, other metals
Particulate matter: results in acute and chronic death; no well defined safe threshold for PM
Small assessment on solar: major health concern is related to the crystalline silicon, other materials such as: copper indium diselenide, copper indium galium diselenide, gallium arsenide, and cadmium telluride
Mining for silica risk of silicosis (lung disease caused by inhalation), exposure to toxic metals (cadmium, arsenic,chromium, lead) and gases (arsine, phosphine, silane) during manufacturing
Cited that health impacts of solar are far less than any fossil fuel

Air pollution and early deaths in the United States. Part II: Attribution of PM2.5 exposure to emissions species, time, location and sector

Dedoussi, I., Barrett, S. (2014). "Air pollution and early deaths in the United States. Part II: Attribution of PM2.5 exposure to emissions species, time, location and sector," Atmospheric Environment, 99, 610-617.

Will focus on electrical generation sector for this paper
data from 2005
Looks at premature mortalities (death): spatial and temporal factors included in this model
Electrical generation responsible for 75% of health impacts- due to sulfur dioxide emissions
electrical power generation 4x the emissions in the summer than in the winter- this does not align with other research, however this is more recent
combustion emissions: 12% from California, 7% from Pennsylvania, 5.8% from Ohio

Coal mine fires and human health: what do we know?

Melody, S., Johnston, F. (2015). "Coal mine fires and human health: what do we know?," International Journal of Coal Geology, 152(Part B), 1-14.

Nature of coal fire emissions varies with nature of combustion- attempt to show comprehensive list
carbon monoxide, benzene, mercury, toluene, carbon dioxide; soot (particulate matter); harmful trace elements: selenium, arsenic, mercury
carbon dioxide emissions vary 12kg to 8200kg
Table 1 provides description of emissions and health impacts
82% chance of death in 70,000 people surrounding coal mine fire (double check source)
Hazelwood mine fire: 9.2 additional monthly deaths when in proximity to mine fire
Only provides support that there is a correlation between exposure to coal mine fire smoke and increased mortality- does not go into detail with number of deaths

Health Effects of Technologies for Power Generation: Contributions from Normal Operation, Severe Accidents and Terrorist Threat

Hirschberg, S., Bauer, C., Burgherr, P., Cazzoli, E., Heck, T., Spada, M., Treyer, K. "Health Effects of Technologies for Power Generation: Contributions from Normal Operation, Severe Accidents and Terrorist Threat," Reliability Engineering and System Safety,'145, 373-387.

emissions of normal operation of power plants contributes to increased mortality and morbidity
This study includes results from both Europe and China
mortality is expressed in years of life lost (YOLL) per kwh
coal power plants without emission reduction yield highest health damages per unit of electricity produced
provide great figures to show fatalities per kWh due to accidents, life years lost, disability adjusted life years- for several types of fossil fuel combustion
Premature fatality caused by air pollution corresponds to roughly 10 life years lost
ulitmately- fatality rates due to normal operation are much higher than due to accidents- waiting to interpret numbers

Mitigation tactics for Coal Emissions

Energy Pay-back Time and CO2 Emissions of PV Systems

Alsema, E. (2000). "Energy Pay-back Time and CO2 Emissions of PV Systems," Progress in Photovoltaic Research and Applications,8(1), 17-25.

Emission and energy pay back addressed here; emissions focused only on production of pv modules
energy required to produce multicrystalline: 2400-7600 MJ/meters squared, for single-crystalline: 5300-16500 MJ/meters squared
Energy pay back period- a concern when considering alternative technologies
Present day systems (point this is in 2000) is 3-4 years, may have improved since then; projected to decline to 1-2 years
Figure 2 provides carbon dioxide emission of rooftop solar: in 1999 mc-silicon 50 kWh/m2/yr; projected this to decrease to 30 in 2010; again numbers may have improved significantly more since then

Effects of air-pollution control on death rates in Dublin, Ireland: an intervention study

Clancy, L., Goodman, P., Sinclair, H., Dockery, D. (2002). "Effects of air-pollution control on death rates in Dublin, Ireland: an intervention study," The Lancet, 360(9341), 1210-1214.

looking at improvements in air quality's effects on daily mortality and life expectancy
1980's Ireland shifted from oil to combustion of coal
1990 government banned use of bituminous coal (black coal) in Dublin- study compares levels of pollution before and after ban
totaled individuals who died of respiratory infection/disease, cardiovascular, cerebrovascular
Found: pollution declined following ban of combustion of black coal
found: overall decline in mortality, largest reduction found in seasons where coal use was highest (winters, spring)- significant results found 403 fewer deaths per year following bituminous coal ban
broken down: Respiratory: avg 116 fewer deaths, cardiovascular: avg 243 fewer deaths
mitigation tactic: ban on bituminous coal sales, marketing, use, combustion, etc

Mitigating energy-related GHG emissions through renewable energy

El-Fadel, M., Chedid, R., Zeinati, M., Hmaidan, W. (2003). "Mitigating energy-related GHG emissions through renewable energy," Renewable Energy, 28(8), 1257-1276.

In 2003, energy industry contributed 74% to global carbon dioxide emissions
This includes transportation
This study is conducted in Lebanon- could be used as case study, but maybe not overall numbers
Author suggests solar is most promising renewable source in middle east, but does not think it will penetrate market due to investment costs
Estimates that solar if only 5% of energy generation from solar- reduction to 832 Gg/year in carbon dioxide emissions

Can Reducing Black Carbon Emissions Counteract Global Warming?

Bond, T., Sun, H. (2005). "Can Reducing Black Carbon Emissions Counteract Global Warming?," Environmental Science and Technology,39(16), 5921-5926.

Black carbon is produced by poor combustion of coal
second/third largest warming agent
including black carbon in ghg emissions is difficult as effects are still relatively unclear
black carbon- poor combustion- so suggesting smaller combustion sources, as larger have better/efficient practices
suggest 1kg black has same forcing effect as 680kg carbon dioxide
suggestions to decrease black carbon include: more efficient indoor cookware, better technology for diesel engines
does not suggest use of alternative energy and fuels to mitigate these in homes

Environmental impacts from the solar energy technologies

Tsoutsos, T., Frantzeskaki, N., Gekas, V. (2005). "Environmental impacts from the solar energy technologies," Energy Policy, 33(3), 289-296.

Positive environmental impacts
Reduced carbon dioxide emissions, generally see absence in air and waste emissions
reclamation of degraded land
reduction of transmission lines from traditional electric grid
improved quality of water
positive socioeconomic impacts
increase national energy dependency (still only at regional level)
increase jobs
diversify and secure energy supplies
support deregulated energy markets
more advantages located in generic issues section- provide how solar improves site conditions, flora fauna, etc
Negative impacts addressed depends on size and nature of project
pollutant from leakage of coolant change (double check)
accidental release of chemicals- during operation pv systems do not emit these things, however this could occur with improper management and operation practices
land use- large projects reduce cultivable land (later could site agriphotovoltaics?)
visual intrusion- able to incorporate solar into building designs
occupational hazards: accidental release of heat transfer fluids, fatal accidents (minimal) with use of liquid sodium system, light intensities that damage eyesight
water pollution due to thermal discharges or accidental discharges, air pollution: transport emissions, otherwise low
loss of habitat: counter with environmental impact statements for areas to avoid
deplete natural resources: research underway to reduce these impacts
provides solutions for most the environmental issues addressed above

Greenhouse-gas emissions from solar electric- and nuclear power: A life-cycle study

Fthenakis, V., Chul-Kim, H. (2007). "Greenhouse-gas emissions from solar electric- and nuclear power: A life-cycle study," Energy Policy, 35(4), 2549-2557.

looks at entire life cycle to account for all ghg emissions
EU has a measure: External Costs of Energy for energy projects
This assessment- in 2003 showed PV in Germany emitting 180g carbon dioxide/kWh (double check against other sources), also showed toxic gas emissions
This study readdresses this as the methodology of the ExternE may not be entirely accurate
Life cycle of solar PV: material production, module production, balance of system production, system operation and maintenance, system decomissioning, and disposal or recycle
GHG emissions involved: 18 g carbon dioxide/kWh (cited from another study- double check), other studies find 12 g carbon dioxide/kWh
Total energy required in life cycle of U.S. cadmium tellurdie PV was 1200MJ/meters squared
Total GHG involved in BOS(balance of system production) was found to be an avg of 24 g carbon dioxide/kWh for utility grounded and 20 g carbon dioxide/kWh for residential rooftop (These are U.S. numbers)
European modules has less carbon involved and numbers are around 16 g carbon dioxide/kWh
did not really break down where these numbers come from- only show final/totals

Emissions from photovoltaic life cycles

Fthenakis, V., Chul Kim, H., Alsema, E. (2008). "Emissions from photovoltaic life cycles," Environmental Science and Technology, 42(6), 2168-2174.

Taking into account full life cycle of solar- can have emissions
fossil fuel energy to create solar
Life cycle studies on crystalline silicon, fewer studies on thin film solar pv
Energy payback times for silicon: roughly 3.5 years (double check) for thin film: range from 1.1-2.7 years
Look at four commercial PV systems: ribbon-silicon, multicrystalline silicon, monocrystalline silicon, and thin-film cadmium telluride
Most emissions are indirect due to use of fossil fuels to generate energy
direct emissions come from mining for metals- although noted: liquid and solid waste are mostly recycled
Life cycle steps-brief

mining for quartz sand for silicon, and metal ore for cadmium telluride
heating to obtain optimal silicon structure
cadmium telluride; smelting from zinc and copper
production of polycrystalline silicon most energy consuming stage

2004 greenhouse gas emissions of silicon modules are within 30-45 g carbon dioxide equivalent per kWh, 24g carbon dioxide equiv per kWh for cadmium telluride
Direct cadmium emissions during whole life cycle estimates: 0.015 g/GWh during mining, smelting, purification, and synthesis, 0.004 g/GWh during manufacturing, accidental release: 0.02 g/GWh. This estimates to 90-300 times lower than emissions from coal
Indirect cadmium emissions: researchers concluded that cadmium telluride PV displacing other electricity prevents significant amount of Cd from being released to the air;
Great figures (4 and 5) show emission breakdown for metals in pv life cycle

Life cycle assessment of photovoltaic electricity generation

Stoppato, A. (2008). "Life cycle assessment of photovoltaic electricity generation," Energy, 33(2), 224-232.

Breakdown of emissions for each step in life cycle addressed in table 5
Breaks down of air, water, waste, and other emissions
Carbon dioxide at both the Silica transformation and n-film formation phases: 4.5 kg/kg mg-Si, 0.01 g/wafer, respectively
Total of life cycle from this assessment: 80 kg equivalent carbon dioxide per panel contributes to global warming
Great table shows carbon dioxide content for several countries- Table 8

Air emissions due to wind and solar power

Katzenstein W., Apt, J. (2009). "Air emissions due to wind and solar power," Environmental Science and Technology, 43(2), 253-258.

A study that looks at emission changes when renewables (wind and solar) involved in cogeneration- natural gas
natural gas plant is used as baseload- generates when solar and wind not generating
Looked at only carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions- issue- maybe should have looked at methane emissions as well that comprise greenhouse gases
different variables of renewable penetration- below 65% penetration found smaller reduction in nitrogen oxides
carbon dioxide reductions from wind or solar paired with natural gas baseload: 75-80%
does not address other emissions when using alternative generation to fill-in for renewables when they do not generate

Fine-Particulate Air Pollution and Life Expectancy in the United States

Pope, C., Ezzati, M., Dockery, D. (2009). "Fine-Particulate Air Pollution and Life Expectancy in the United States," The New England Journal of Medicine, 360, 376-386.

Question of study: "Do improvements in air quality result in measurable improvements in human health and longevity?"
assessed associations between life expectancy and fine-particulate matter
life expectancy not explicitly defined in article- how long individual will live based on external factors
study from years 1980-2000
PM2.5 concentrations declined from 1980's to 1990's- correlating with: increased life expectancy
10 microgram/ meters cubed increase in PM2.5 resulted in 1-2 years decrease in life expectancy (avg)
10 microgram/meters cubed decrease in PM2.5 resulted in 0.61 year increase in life expectancy, avg increase in life expectancy from 1980-2000 was 2.72 years

Life cycle assessment of solar PV based electricity generation systems: A review

Sherwani, A., Usmani, J., Varun. (2010) "Life cycle assessment of solar PV based electricity generation systems: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14(1), 540-544.

noted that solar PV does emit greenhouse gases
briefly address synthesis of PV module using silicon solar cells
Life cycle analysis for amorphous, mono-crystalline, poly-crystalline, and other PV modules

Amorphous: energy consumption for PV plant- 13,000-21000 kWh/kWp, carbon dioxide emissions- 3.360 kg-CO2/kWp, energy pay back period 2.5-3 years for rooftop (with 50-60 g/kWh carbon dioxide emissions in 2010), 3-4 for ground mounted
Mono-crystalline: carbon dioxide emissions: 5.020 kg-carbon dioxide/kWp, energy pay back ~4 years- (provide different systems for different years with very different carbon dioxide emissions
Poly-crystalline: energy pay back- 3.3-4.1 years, again shows very different ares of power systems with very different GHG emissions

addresses tradeoffs such as: efficiency vs emission to produce and use, in the different modules
Ranges are for (1) 15.6-50 gcarbon dioxide/kWh, (2) 44-280 g carbon dioxide/kWh, (3) 9.4-104 g carbon dioxide/kWh
paper recommends using solar pv for drastic carbon dioxide reduction

Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: A review

Panwar, N., Kaushik, S., Kothari, S. (2011) "Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(3), 1513-1524.

Carbon dioxide levels for different regions presented in table 4: these include OECD countries, China, the rest of the world, and world totals
Solar water heating system (100 L per day capacity) can mitigate 1237 kg of carbon dioxide emissions (check sources- as this is review)
Solar thermal power- does not provide mitigation- table 5 shows emissions in comparison to coal-natural gas turbines
Solar PV- diesel operated solar pv pump mitigates 2085 kg carbon dioxide, petrol operates mitigates 1860 kg carbon- again check sources
provides similar data for other alternatives- could be used in discussion to provide support for solar pv

Environmental impacts from the installation and operation of large-scale solar power plants

Turney, D., Frthenakis, V. (2011). "Environmental impacts from the installation and operation of large-scale solar power plants," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(6), 3261-3270.

Looking at geographic areas of importance: forest, grassland, desert shrubland, true desert, and farmland (biodiversity, biomass density, and cloud cover)
Impacts include: land use, human health and well-being, wildlife and habitat, geohydrological resources, climate and greenhouse gases
For this paper, will only look at human health and well-being and climate and greenhouse gases (others can be revisited for the discussion/conclusion sections
Good table that lists human impacts on page 3265
Most impacts are positive;checkout sources that provide numbers for emissions reductions;
in some cases solar is considered "out of bounds" either due to ecosystem impacts or visual and recreational impacts; does not go into full detail, however provides why solar would be better option to open up recreation in other areas (e.g. mercury reduction for more fishing, reduce mountaintop mining)
reduces carbon dioxide (more research needs for solar in forests- although large solar plant in forest seems counterintuitive...
Table 4- shows emissions of carbon dixoxide from the full ife cycle of large-scale solar: overall- much lower than fossil fuels

Wildlife Conservation and Solar Energy Development in the Desert Southwest, United States

Lovich, J., Ennen, J. (2011). "Wildlife Conservation and Solar Energy Development in the Desert Southwest, United States," Bioscience, 61(12), 982-992.

This source is being utilized to double check evidence cited in another paper
will focus on the emissions released by developing utility scale solar
USSED uses dust suppressants for industrial applications: water, salts and brines, nonpretroleum products, synthetic polymers, organic petroleum, electrochemical substances, clay additives, and mulch/fiber mixtures
utilized dust suppressants did have an effect on hydrology- increased runoff volume
evidence from this paper is negative impacts on wildlife- could be good in discussion to show potential arguments against solar transition

Solar energy: Markets, economics and policies

Timilsina, G., Kurdgelashvili, L., Narbel, P. (2012). "Solar energy: Markets, economics and policies," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(1), 449-465.

market penetration: 1.4 GW global solar in 2000 to 40 GW in 2010.
Could use this- what lives saved as of now, how much more do we need to go
provides cost competitiveness of solar
cost of solar declining so rapidly
cost of air pollution due to fossil fuels: range from $0/tcarbon dioxide to $100/ tcarbon dioxide
did not discuss GHG mitigation in depth- only noted that these emissions are zero when in operation, minimal during production

Demographic change and carbon dioxide emissions

O'Neill, B., Liddle, B., Jiang, L., Smith, K., Pachauri, S., Dalton, M., Fuchs, R. (2012). "Demographic change and carbon dioxide emissions," The Lancet, 380(9837), 157-164.

Population size widely viewed as important driving force of future emissions
This study focuses on demographic changes and effects on carbon dioxide emissions from energy production
as expected- decrease in rate of population growth has potential to reduce global emissions
urbanization leads to increase in emissions- also as expected
solutions involved population and economic policies to reduce growth at both levels in hopes that future will see decrease in global carbon dioxide emissions

Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Historical and Projected Nuclear Power

Kharecha, P., Hansen, J. (2013). "Prevented Mortality and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Historical and Projected Nuclear Power," Environmental Science and Technology, 47(9), 4889-4895.

Utilize article to show advantages and disadvantages of alternatives- why is solar better
This article provides projects on deaths and GHG emissions if nuclear power were completely eliminated
calculated 1.84 million deaths prevented by nuclear- years range from 1971-2009- historical data
Calculated nuclear causes 4900 deaths- again from 1971-2009- compare to solar- historical data
Also provide projections: prevented deaths from 2010-2050: 4.39-7.04 million (low-high end projections)
GHG emissions: historical data 1971-2009: prevented 64 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide
Projections for 2010-2050: will prevent 150-240 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide
does not address externalities associated with nuclear power

Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback and greenhouse gas emission of solar photovoltaic systems

Peng, J., Lu, L., Yang, H.(2013). "Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback and greenhouse gas emission of solar photovoltaic systems," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 19, 255-274.

provides life cycle analysis of both crystalline and thin film pv modules
ultimately energy payback is significant as it is a policy dispute on whether to adopt technology
GHG emissions in US were reported to be 22-49 g co2 equivalent/kWh
energy pay back in US: 2.5-4.9 years; obviously this will vary depending on irradiance of area- seems to be higher with lower irradiance
breakdown of energy pay back and emissions for silicon and thin film- above is used a general measure
Table 5, 6, 8, provide breakdown of life cycle analysis for mono-si, multi-si, cdte pv systems

The potential for air-temperature impact from large-scale deployment of solar photovoltaic arrays in urban areas

Taha, H. (2013). "The potential for air-temperature impact from large-scale deployment of solar photovoltaic arrays in urban areas," Solar Energy, 91, 358-367.

Evaluate and quantify the indirect impacts on the atmosphere of large-scale solar
Focus on rooftop solar in Los Angeles
Measure albedo changes in response to solar
Does large-scale solar generate larger heat islands?
impacts on albedo and consequent heat islands due to 10% efficient large scale solar are virtually non-existent
Albedo remains essentially the same with or without the presence of solar in urban areas
Similar results for 15%, but for 20%- saw some evidence of cooling
Also provide estimates for future, with reasonable deployment and high deployment of PV cells
Results show: no negative effect (on atmospheric conditions) by deploying large scale solar
Results specific to estimates from Los Angeles

Environmental impacts of utility-scale solar energy

Hernandez, R., Easter, S., Murphy-Mariscal, M., Maestre, F., Tavassoli, M., Allen, E., Barrows, C., Belnap, J., Ochoa-Hueso, R., Ravi, S., Allen, M. (2014). "Environmental impacts of utility-scale solar energy," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 29, 766-779.

Figure 2- great image of all impacts
Several impacts worth mentioning- for sake of this project will pull only those related to human, climate impacts
Human Health and Air Quality
Hazards to air quality, health of employees, public- through industrial sized utility
Release soil-born pathogens
Increases in PM2.5 (will double check sources cited on this
decreases in visibility for drivers (double check source for clarification)
soil disruption contaminates water reservoirs and air quality
Positive- recycle of materials during decommissioning
Rooftop Solar PV shown to reduce heat flux- decreasing illness and mortality
Utility-scale solar and Albedo
reflectivity and solar conversion efficiency- tend to have an effective albedo- shows to increase temperatures
However other studies show no effect on air temperatures, or creating heat islands- double check sources
Overall- solar can have significant positive effects on atmosphere land relations- reduced impacts on climate change are 30 times lower than increased impacts of reduced albedo
High ambient temps reduce PV efficiency-? go in depth
Take a look at alternative source to confirm- if PV took up 10% of grid, carbon dioxide reduced from 6.8%-18.8%

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Authors	Emily Prehoda
License	CC-BY-SA-3.0
Language	English (en)
Related	0 subpages, 1 pages link here
Impact	326 page views
Created	January 21, 2016 by Emily Prehoda
Modified	April 14, 2023 by Felipe Schenone
Cite as	Emily Prehoda (2016–2023). "Lives Saved by Replacing Coal with PV". Appropedia. Retrieved April 20, 2024.
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