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====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0038092X76900438 A. Rabl, “Comparison of solar concentrators,” Solar Energy, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 93–111, 1976.doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(76)90043-8][http://www.physics.arizona.edu/~cronin/Solar/References/Solar%20Concentrator%20Models/V%20Trough/RAB76.pdf]====
====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0038092X76900438 A. Rabl, “Comparison of solar concentrators,” Solar Energy, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 93–111, 1976.doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(76)90043-8][http://www.physics.arizona.edu/~cronin/Solar/References/Solar%20Concentrator%20Models/V%20Trough/RAB76.pdf]====
*Analyses the geometric concentration ratio of different types of concentrators.
*Analyses the geometric concentration ratio of different types of concentrators.
*Concludes that there is a nonuniformity of the flux density distribution on the absorber.
*Concludes that there is a nonuniformity of the flux density distribution on the absorber.  
 
*''Considerations :''
 
*''Assumptions:''
 
*''Aim:''
 
*''Findings:''
 
*''Imp concepts:''
 
*''Limitations:''


====[https://www.osapublishing.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-15-11-2880 A. Rabl and R. Winston, “Ideal concentrators for finite sources and restricted exit angles,” Applied Optics, vol. 15, no. 11, p. 2880, Nov. 1976. doi: 10.1364/AO.15.002880]====
====[https://www.osapublishing.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-15-11-2880 A. Rabl and R. Winston, “Ideal concentrators for finite sources and restricted exit angles,” Applied Optics, vol. 15, no. 11, p. 2880, Nov. 1976. doi: 10.1364/AO.15.002880]====
*''Considerations :''
Design procedures for ideal radiation concentrators are described which are applicable to finite sources and/or restricted exit angles. Finite sources are relevant for second stage concentrators which collect and further concentrate radiation from a primary focusing element (mirror or lens) in a manner similar to the field optic element in a telescope. Restricting the exit angle is useful for improving the optical efficiency of solar collectors by eliminating grazing angles of incidence of the absorber. It also serves to extend the useful range of angular acceptance values available from solid dielectric concentrators that function by total internal reflection. Concentrators of this type can be used to construct highly efficient radiation traps (spectrally selective filters).
 
*''Assumptions:''
 
*''Aim:''
 
*''Findings:''
 
*''Imp concepts:''
 
*''Limitations:''


====[http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/6867880 D. P. Grimmer, K. G. Zinn, K. C. Herr, and B. E. Wood, “Augmented Solar Energy Collection Using Various Planar Reflective Surfaces: Theoretical Calculations and Experimental Results,” Los Alamos Scientific Lab., N.Mex. (USA), LA-7041, Apr. 1978]====
====[http://www.osti.gov/scitech/biblio/6867880 D. P. Grimmer, K. G. Zinn, K. C. Herr, and B. E. Wood, “Augmented Solar Energy Collection Using Various Planar Reflective Surfaces: Theoretical Calculations and Experimental Results,” Los Alamos Scientific Lab., N.Mex. (USA), LA-7041, Apr. 1978]====
*''Considerations :''
The use of planar reflective surfaces can substantially improve the performance of both active and passive solar collectors. The results of theoretical calculations and experimental tests on the use of different types of flat reflective surfaces to increase the collection of solar energy by flat collectors are presented. Specular, diffuse, and combination specular/diffuse reflective surfaces are discussed. A computer model has been generated to describe surfaces as a combination of specular- and diffuse-like reflectivities. The reflective properties of a given surface can be measured in the laboratory as a function of incident and reflected angles. Predictions of system performance were made for various collector/reflector configurations and compared with the performance of an optimally oriented collector without a reflector.
 
*''Assumptions:''
 
*''Aim:''
 
*''Findings:''
 
*''Imp concepts:''
 
*''Limitations:''


====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0038092X84900124 R. W. Stacey and P. G. McCormick, “Effect of concentration on the performance of flat plate photovoltaic modules,” Solar Energy, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 565–569, 1984. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(84)90012-4]====
====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0038092X84900124 R. W. Stacey and P. G. McCormick, “Effect of concentration on the performance of flat plate photovoltaic modules,” Solar Energy, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 565–569, 1984. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(84)90012-4]====
*''Considerations :''
The effect of low concentration ratios on the performance of passively cooled conventional photovoltaic modules has been investigated. Peak power outputs of up to 140 W per square metre of module area have been obtained with single crystal modules of high cell packing factor using a 2.2X plane mirror concentrator. Both cell temperature and series resistance losses are found to be important in limiting module efficiency. Performance simulations indicate that the use of a 4X concentrator with polar axis tracking will increase annual peak output by a factor of 3.2 over that of a fixed flat plate module.
 
*''Assumptions:''
 
*''Aim:''
 
*''Findings:''
 
*''Imp concepts:''
 
*''Limitations:''


====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0165163390900475 G. Smestad, H. Ries, R. Winston, and E. Yablonovitch, “The thermodynamic limits of light concentrators,” Solar Energy Materials, vol. 21, no. 2–3, pp. 99–111, Dec. 1990. doi: 10.1016/0165-1633(90)90047-5]====
====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0165163390900475 G. Smestad, H. Ries, R. Winston, and E. Yablonovitch, “The thermodynamic limits of light concentrators,” Solar Energy Materials, vol. 21, no. 2–3, pp. 99–111, Dec. 1990. doi: 10.1016/0165-1633(90)90047-5]====
*''Considerations :''
To concentrate the light, photons from a larger area are collected and directed to a smaller area. Some devices use geometrical optics, or a change in index of refraction to increase the illumination on a surface above the incident solar level. Other systems use a frequency or Stokes shift to increase the illumination of light at one photon energy at the expense of another. Presented is a unification of the ideas and principles developed for the various classifications of concentrators. Equations are developed that describe the limits of concentration in geometrical and fluorescent systems. Concentration is shown to be a function of the index of refraction, angular collection range, as well as the frequency shift. Applications of the ideas involve the understanding of diffuse radiation concentrators and the solar powered laser.
 
*''Assumptions:''
 
*''Aim:''
 
*''Findings:''
 
*''Imp concepts:''
 
*''Limitations:''


====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0038092X9390144D R. P. Friedman, J. M. Gordon, and H. Ries, “New high-flux two-stage optical designs for parabolic solar concentrators,” Solar Energy, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 317–325, 1993. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(93)90144-D]====
====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0038092X9390144D R. P. Friedman, J. M. Gordon, and H. Ries, “New high-flux two-stage optical designs for parabolic solar concentrators,” Solar Energy, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 317–325, 1993. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(93)90144-D]====
*''Considerations :''
A new two-stage optical design for parabolic dish concentrators that can realistically attain close to 90% of the thermodynamic limit to concentration with practical, compact designs  was presented. For comparison, the parabolic dish-plus-compound parabolic concentrator secondary design, at this rim angle, achieves no more than 50% of the thermodynamic limit. A new secondary concentrator is tailored to accept edge rays from the parabolic primary, and incurs less than one reflection on average. It necessitates displacing the absorber from the parabola's focal plane, along the concentrators optic axis, toward the primary reflector, and constructing the secondary between the absorber and the primary. The secondary tailored edge-ray concentrators described here create new possibilities for building compact, extremely high flux solar furnaces and/or commercial parabolic dish systems.
 
*''Assumptions:''
 
*''Aim:''
 
*''Findings:''
 
*''Imp concepts:''
 
*''Limitations:''  


====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0038092X9390145E B. Perers and B. Karlsson,  “External reflectors for large solar collector arrays, simulation model and experimental results,” Solar Energy, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 327–337, 1993.doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(93)90145-E]====
====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0038092X9390145E B. Perers and B. Karlsson,  “External reflectors for large solar collector arrays, simulation model and experimental results,” Solar Energy, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 327–337, 1993.doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(93)90145-E]====
*''Considerations :''
A model for the calculation of incident solar radiation from flat- and CPC-shaped external reflectors onto flat plate solar collector arrays has been developed. Assuming an infinite length of the collector/reflector rows, the basic calculations of incident radiation in the collector plane from the reflector become very simple. The incident radiation onto the collector, including corrections for shadowing and lost radiation above the collector, can then be calculated using 2-D geometry.  The diffuse radiation is assumed to be isotropic. The incidence angle for the solar radiation from the reflector onto the collector is in most cases higher than the incidence angle for the radiation directly from the sun. Therefore the incidence angle characteristics of the collector glazing and absorber become more important in this application. Equations for the incidence angles for diffuse and beam radiation are provided. An annual performance increase of over 30%, 100–120 kW h/m2, has been measured for aged (four operating seasons) flat reflectors in the Swedish climate. With a CPC-shaped reflector and new reflector materials, a performance increase of up to 170 kW h/m2 is not unrealistic. This means that the collector and ground area requirement can be reduced by more than 30% for a given load.
 
*''Assumptions:''
 
*''Aim:''
 
*''Findings:''
 
*''Imp concepts:''
 
*''Limitations:''


====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610214002732 S. Hess and V. I. Hanby, “Collector Simulation Model with Dynamic Incidence Angle Modifier for Anisotropic Diffuse Irradiance,” Energy Procedia, vol. 48, pp. 87–96, 2014. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.02.011]====
====[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1876610214002732 S. Hess and V. I. Hanby, “Collector Simulation Model with Dynamic Incidence Angle Modifier for Anisotropic Diffuse Irradiance,” Energy Procedia, vol. 48, pp. 87–96, 2014. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.02.011]====
*''Considerations :''
One constant collector parameter, independent from slope or weather conditions is considered. The simulation model introduced considers the varying anisotropy of sky radiance. To create realistic distributions, the approach of Brunger and Hooper is used. Three possible modes were demonstrated. The model is applied to a stationary, double-covered process heat flat-plate collector with one-sided CPC booster reflector (RefleC). The collector shows a biaxial and asymmetric IAM for direct irradiance. It is found that, compared to anisotropic modeling, the simplified isotropic model is undervaluing the annual output of this collector by 13.7% for a constant inlet temperature of 120 °C in Würzburg, Germany. An annual irradiation distribution diagram shows that this is due to an underestimation of diffuse irradiation from directions with high direct irradiation. It is concluded that isotropic modeling of diffuse irradiance can be expected to significantly undervalue the annual output of all non-focusing solar thermal collectors. Highest relevance is found for high collector slopes, complex IAMs and at low-efficiency operation. The optimal collector slope is almost not affected. Accuracy of existing models can be increased by applying Mode 2.
 
*''Assumptions:''
 
*''Aim:''
 
*''Findings:''
 
*''Imp concepts:''
 
*''Limitations:''


====[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=6838547 V. P. Anand, M. M. Khan, E. Ameen, V. Amuthan, and B. Pesala, “Performance improvement of solar module system using flat plate reflectors,” in 2014 International Conference on Advances in Electrical Engineering (ICAEE), 2014, pp. 1–4. doi: 10.1109/ICAEE.2014.6838547]====
====[http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=6838547 V. P. Anand, M. M. Khan, E. Ameen, V. Amuthan, and B. Pesala, “Performance improvement of solar module system using flat plate reflectors,” in 2014 International Conference on Advances in Electrical Engineering (ICAEE), 2014, pp. 1–4. doi: 10.1109/ICAEE.2014.6838547]====

Revision as of 10:37, 9 February 2016

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Background

What are Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV)??

Wikipedia : Concentrator photovoltaic systems employ curved reflectors such as lenses and mirrors to focus incoming sun rays onto the solar cells to harvest solar energy with more efficiency measured as watt-peak Wp. They are often equipped with single or dual-axis solar trackers and cooling systems that promote dual-way power generation. Based on the intensities measured in number of suns, CPV systems are classified as Low concentration PV, High concentration PV, Medium concentration PV and Luminescent solar concentrators.

This idea of concentrating sun's radiation dates back to 212 B.C.The famous Greek inventor Archimedes used mirrors, later called as burning mirrors, to set enemy ships at blaze. Concentrators/reflectors use principles of optics (focal point) to concentrate sunlight onto absorbers/Solar cells.

K. G. T. Hollands, “A concentrator for thin-film solar cells,” Solar Energy, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 149–163, May 1971. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(71)90001-6

  • Considerations : V-Trough reflector as side walls with solar cells at the base; Seasonal tracking alone is considered but not diurnal tracking; Axis along east-west direction; Used thin-film polycrystalline cadmium Sulphide cells.
  • Assumptions: Side walls to be perfectly specular, gray surfaces; restricts the trough geometries studied to those where, with the solar beam normal to the base, two conditions are met: (a) the base is uniformly irradiated; (b) no ray suffers more than one reflection.
  • Aim: To determine yearly average direct-beam concentration factor for any incidence angle, opening angle and side-wall reflectance.
  • Findings: Concludes that total yearly mean concentration factors of the order of 2 are possible with V-trough concentrators.
  • Imp concepts: Calculations on Solar geometry (N-S & E-W).
  • Limitations: Side- walls are ideal specular reflectors.

R. M. Swanson, “The promise of concentrators,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 93–111, Jan. 2000. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(200001/02)8:1<93::AID-PIP303>3.0.CO;2-S

  • Aim: To address the issue of why concentrator systems have not gained a significant market share.
  • Information: 1. Provides overview of active concentrator developments in major universities and labs in US, UK and Japan. 2. Surmises advantages of concentrator technology, its barriers and suggestions to overcome them along with recommendations for future developments.

D. A. W. B. Dr. Simon P. Philipps and D. S. K. Kelsey Horowitz, “Current Status of Concentrator Photovoltaic (CPV) Technology,” Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE in Freiburg, Germany & National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL in Golden, Colorado, USA, TP-6A20-63916, Sep. 2015.

  • Aim: To Summarize the status of the concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) market and industry as well as current trends in research and technology. This report is intended to guide research agendas for Fraunhofer ISE, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), and other R&D organizations.
  • Review: 1. Clearly distinguishes between CPV strengths and weaknesses. 2. Focusses on market and industry aspects- levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) studies of current available CPV technologies. 3. Overview of research and technological developments in Fraunhofer Institute and NREL. 4. Serves as reference for stakeholders in the CPV industry and research.

A. K. Pandey, V. V. Tyagi, J. A. Selvaraj, N. A. Rahim, and S. K. Tyagi, “Recent advances in solar photovoltaic systems for emerging trends and advanced applications,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 53, pp. 859–884, Jan. 2016.10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.043

  • Aim: To provide a comprehensive review on the solar photovoltaic (SPV) systems especially BIPV, CPV & PV/T and their recent advances along with emerging applications in the present and future scenario.
  • Review: 1. Provides estimates on energy consumption over past few decades to near future. 2. Provides abridged version of background on PV but focusses more on recent advances in the PV technology and compares numerous cell configurations in accordance to their efficiencies. 3. Gives insights of various PV materials like crystalline, thin-film, Concentrated PV, Hybrid, Organic and Polymer materials etc. 4. Discusses deeply the applications of PV technology with particular case studies which extends even for space based solar technology. 5. Provides recommendations wherein to concentrate the more R&D.

Low concentration photovoltaics (LCPV)

Low concentration PV systems can be illuminated with intensities less than 20 suns [1] which can be varied up to 100 suns. LCPV systems eliminate the need of complex cooling systems and are often facilitated with booster reflectors. LCPV systems doesn't require active tracking mechanisms due to wide acceptance angles [2]. These can sufficed with single-axis tracking system yet maintaining 35-40% increased power output. The reflected radiation incident on these modules depends on the clearness of the index of the location [3] [4] and thus they are more effective when installed where direct radiation is a significant percentage of the global radiation (South Europe, Northern Africa, Southern states of the USA, etc.).

Measuring Intensity in Suns:  Intensity of sunlight illuminating on PV cells are measured as 'Suns'. 'One Sun' is the amount of energy drawn to an object openly exposed out on a cloudless day which is approximately 100 watts per square foot.

Concept of Reflectors-Concentrators

The efficacy of incorporating reflectors or concentrators for PV cells or modules is to intensify the incident radiation i.e., to increase incident radiation per m^2. They increase the output efficiency leading to reduction of capital costs. The main features of reflectors are high reflectance, low scattering and low degradation i.e., loss of reflectance over time.

Link directly to Understanding_solar_concentrators

H. Tabor, “Stationary mirror systems for solar collectors,” Solar Energy, vol. 2, no. 3–4, pp. 27–33, Jul. 1958. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(58)90051-3

  • Aim: To provide with studies that proves tilting of solar concentrators along with usage of mirrors for concentrating radiation is more efficient.
  • Considerations:The mirror has the form of a cylindrical parabola with the cylindrical axis mounted horizontally east-west.
  • Findings: Complete stationary mirror cannot provide any useful concentration while tilting the solar collectors with varying seasons can yield more efficiencies; The maximum optical concentration of 3 is obtained at a minimum angle of acceptance of 15-17 deg for the mirrors. Employing an auxiliary side mirror for second stage concentration can increase this concentration power to about 4. One cannot apply a second stage of optical concentration to the double-sided receiver.
  • Imp concepts:An angle in solar geometry termed the EWV altitude is defined, and its variation with time and season is shown.This indicates the necessary acceptance angle of a stationary mirror system for solar collectors. Solar geometry studies. Geometrical studies of cylindrical parabola.

A. Rabl, “Solar concentrators with maximal concentration for cylindrical absorbers,” Applied Optics, vol. 15, no. 7, p. 1871, Jul. 1976. doi: 10.1364/AO.15.001871

The differential equation is derived that describes the reflector of an ideal two-dimensional radiation concentrator with an absorber of arbitrary convex shape. For the special case of an absorber with circular cross section, the equation can be solved in closed form if suitable coordinates are used. The effect of absorption at the reflector is considered, and formulas are presented for determining the attenuation of radiation on its passage from aperture to absorber.

A. Rabl, “Comparison of solar concentrators,” Solar Energy, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 93–111, 1976.doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(76)90043-8[1]

  • Analyses the geometric concentration ratio of different types of concentrators.
  • Concludes that there is a nonuniformity of the flux density distribution on the absorber.

A. Rabl and R. Winston, “Ideal concentrators for finite sources and restricted exit angles,” Applied Optics, vol. 15, no. 11, p. 2880, Nov. 1976. doi: 10.1364/AO.15.002880

Design procedures for ideal radiation concentrators are described which are applicable to finite sources and/or restricted exit angles. Finite sources are relevant for second stage concentrators which collect and further concentrate radiation from a primary focusing element (mirror or lens) in a manner similar to the field optic element in a telescope. Restricting the exit angle is useful for improving the optical efficiency of solar collectors by eliminating grazing angles of incidence of the absorber. It also serves to extend the useful range of angular acceptance values available from solid dielectric concentrators that function by total internal reflection. Concentrators of this type can be used to construct highly efficient radiation traps (spectrally selective filters).

D. P. Grimmer, K. G. Zinn, K. C. Herr, and B. E. Wood, “Augmented Solar Energy Collection Using Various Planar Reflective Surfaces: Theoretical Calculations and Experimental Results,” Los Alamos Scientific Lab., N.Mex. (USA), LA-7041, Apr. 1978

The use of planar reflective surfaces can substantially improve the performance of both active and passive solar collectors. The results of theoretical calculations and experimental tests on the use of different types of flat reflective surfaces to increase the collection of solar energy by flat collectors are presented. Specular, diffuse, and combination specular/diffuse reflective surfaces are discussed. A computer model has been generated to describe surfaces as a combination of specular- and diffuse-like reflectivities. The reflective properties of a given surface can be measured in the laboratory as a function of incident and reflected angles. Predictions of system performance were made for various collector/reflector configurations and compared with the performance of an optimally oriented collector without a reflector.

R. W. Stacey and P. G. McCormick, “Effect of concentration on the performance of flat plate photovoltaic modules,” Solar Energy, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 565–569, 1984. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(84)90012-4

The effect of low concentration ratios on the performance of passively cooled conventional photovoltaic modules has been investigated. Peak power outputs of up to 140 W per square metre of module area have been obtained with single crystal modules of high cell packing factor using a 2.2X plane mirror concentrator. Both cell temperature and series resistance losses are found to be important in limiting module efficiency. Performance simulations indicate that the use of a 4X concentrator with polar axis tracking will increase annual peak output by a factor of 3.2 over that of a fixed flat plate module.

G. Smestad, H. Ries, R. Winston, and E. Yablonovitch, “The thermodynamic limits of light concentrators,” Solar Energy Materials, vol. 21, no. 2–3, pp. 99–111, Dec. 1990. doi: 10.1016/0165-1633(90)90047-5

To concentrate the light, photons from a larger area are collected and directed to a smaller area. Some devices use geometrical optics, or a change in index of refraction to increase the illumination on a surface above the incident solar level. Other systems use a frequency or Stokes shift to increase the illumination of light at one photon energy at the expense of another. Presented is a unification of the ideas and principles developed for the various classifications of concentrators. Equations are developed that describe the limits of concentration in geometrical and fluorescent systems. Concentration is shown to be a function of the index of refraction, angular collection range, as well as the frequency shift. Applications of the ideas involve the understanding of diffuse radiation concentrators and the solar powered laser.

R. P. Friedman, J. M. Gordon, and H. Ries, “New high-flux two-stage optical designs for parabolic solar concentrators,” Solar Energy, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 317–325, 1993. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(93)90144-D

A new two-stage optical design for parabolic dish concentrators that can realistically attain close to 90% of the thermodynamic limit to concentration with practical, compact designs was presented. For comparison, the parabolic dish-plus-compound parabolic concentrator secondary design, at this rim angle, achieves no more than 50% of the thermodynamic limit. A new secondary concentrator is tailored to accept edge rays from the parabolic primary, and incurs less than one reflection on average. It necessitates displacing the absorber from the parabola's focal plane, along the concentrators optic axis, toward the primary reflector, and constructing the secondary between the absorber and the primary. The secondary tailored edge-ray concentrators described here create new possibilities for building compact, extremely high flux solar furnaces and/or commercial parabolic dish systems.

B. Perers and B. Karlsson, “External reflectors for large solar collector arrays, simulation model and experimental results,” Solar Energy, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 327–337, 1993.doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(93)90145-E

A model for the calculation of incident solar radiation from flat- and CPC-shaped external reflectors onto flat plate solar collector arrays has been developed. Assuming an infinite length of the collector/reflector rows, the basic calculations of incident radiation in the collector plane from the reflector become very simple. The incident radiation onto the collector, including corrections for shadowing and lost radiation above the collector, can then be calculated using 2-D geometry. The diffuse radiation is assumed to be isotropic. The incidence angle for the solar radiation from the reflector onto the collector is in most cases higher than the incidence angle for the radiation directly from the sun. Therefore the incidence angle characteristics of the collector glazing and absorber become more important in this application. Equations for the incidence angles for diffuse and beam radiation are provided. An annual performance increase of over 30%, 100–120 kW h/m2, has been measured for aged (four operating seasons) flat reflectors in the Swedish climate. With a CPC-shaped reflector and new reflector materials, a performance increase of up to 170 kW h/m2 is not unrealistic. This means that the collector and ground area requirement can be reduced by more than 30% for a given load.

S. Hess and V. I. Hanby, “Collector Simulation Model with Dynamic Incidence Angle Modifier for Anisotropic Diffuse Irradiance,” Energy Procedia, vol. 48, pp. 87–96, 2014. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.02.011

One constant collector parameter, independent from slope or weather conditions is considered. The simulation model introduced considers the varying anisotropy of sky radiance. To create realistic distributions, the approach of Brunger and Hooper is used. Three possible modes were demonstrated. The model is applied to a stationary, double-covered process heat flat-plate collector with one-sided CPC booster reflector (RefleC). The collector shows a biaxial and asymmetric IAM for direct irradiance. It is found that, compared to anisotropic modeling, the simplified isotropic model is undervaluing the annual output of this collector by 13.7% for a constant inlet temperature of 120 °C in Würzburg, Germany. An annual irradiation distribution diagram shows that this is due to an underestimation of diffuse irradiation from directions with high direct irradiation. It is concluded that isotropic modeling of diffuse irradiance can be expected to significantly undervalue the annual output of all non-focusing solar thermal collectors. Highest relevance is found for high collector slopes, complex IAMs and at low-efficiency operation. The optimal collector slope is almost not affected. Accuracy of existing models can be increased by applying Mode 2.

V. P. Anand, M. M. Khan, E. Ameen, V. Amuthan, and B. Pesala, “Performance improvement of solar module system using flat plate reflectors,” in 2014 International Conference on Advances in Electrical Engineering (ICAEE), 2014, pp. 1–4. doi: 10.1109/ICAEE.2014.6838547

  • Considerations :
  • Assumptions:
  • Aim:
  • Findings:
  • Imp concepts:
  • Limitations:

S. Hess,“Stationary booster reflectors for solar thermal process heat generation,” SASEC, 2015

  • Considerations :
  • Assumptions:
  • Aim:
  • Findings:
  • Imp concepts:
  • Limitations:

V-trough solar concentrators

J. Freilich and J. M. Gordon, “Case study of a central-station grid-intertie photovoltaic system with V-trough concentration,” Solar Energy, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 267–273, Jan. 1991. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(91)90093-C

  • Considerations :
  • Assumptions:
  • Aim:
  • Findings:
  • Imp concepts:
  • Limitations:

N. Fraidenraich, “Design procedure of V-trough cavities for photovoltaic systems,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 43–54, Jan. 1998.doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(199801/02)6:1<43::AID-PIP200>3.0.CO;2-P

  • Considerations :
  • Assumptions:
  • Aim:
  • Findings:
  • Imp concepts:
  • Limitations:

J. Bione, O. C. Vilela, and N. Fraidenraich, “Comparison of the performance of PV water pumping systems driven by fixed, tracking and V-trough generators,” Solar Energy, vol. 76, no. 6, pp. 703–711, 2004. doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2004.01.003

  • Considerations :
  • Assumptions:
  • Aim:
  • Findings:
  • Imp concepts:
  • Limitations:

C. S. Sangani and C. S. Solanki, “Experimental evaluation of V-trough (2 suns) PV concentrator system using commercial PV modules,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 91, no. 6, pp. 453–459, Mar. 2007.doi: 10.1016/j.solmat.2006.10.012

  • Considerations :
  • Assumptions:
  • Aim:
  • Findings:
  • Imp concepts:
  • Limitations:

N. Martín and J. M. Ruiz, “Optical performance analysis of V-trough PV concentrators,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 339–348, Jun. 2008. doi: 10.1002/pip.817

  • Considerations :
  • Assumptions:
  • Aim:
  • Findings:
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C. S. Solanki, C. S. Sangani, D. Gunashekar, and G. Antony, “Enhanced heat dissipation of V-trough PV modules for better performance,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 92, no. 12, pp. 1634–1638, Dec. 2008. doi: 10.1016/j.solmat.2008.07.022

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F. Reis, M. C. Brito, V. Corregidor, J. Wemans, and G. Sorasio, “Modeling the performance of low concentration photovoltaic systems,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 94, no. 7, pp. 1222–1226, Jul. 2010. doi: 10.1016/j.solmat.2010.03.010

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G. M. Tina and P. F. Scandura, “Case study of a grid connected with a battery photovoltaic system: V-trough concentration vs. single-axis tracking,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 64, pp. 569–578, Dec. 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2012.05.029

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Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPC)

The Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) is a nonimaging optical-design concept that allows maximum concentration of incident energy onto a receiver. This design incorporates a trough-like reflecting wall by which radiation is concentrated to the maximum allowed by physical principles of optics.

A. Rabl, N. B. Goodman, and R. Winston, “Practical design considerations for CPC solar collectors,” Solar Energy, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 373–381, Jan. 1979. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(79)90192-0

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T. Tao, Z. Hongfei, H. Kaiyan, and A. Mayere, “A new trough solar concentrator and its performance analysis,” Solar Energy, vol. 85, no. 1, pp. 198–207, 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2010.08.017

  • A solar concentrator system consisting of a CPC, a secondary reflection plane mirror, and a parabolic trough concentrator
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N. Sarmah, B. S. Richards, and T. K. Mallick, “Evaluation and optimization of the optical performance of low-concentrating dielectric compound parabolic concentrator using ray-tracing methods,” Applied Optics, vol. 50, no. 19, p. 3303, Jul. 2011.doi: 10.1364/AO.50.003303

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M. A. Schuetz, K. A. Shell, S. A. Brown, G. S. Reinbolt, R. H. French, and R. J. Davis, “Design and Construction of a ~7x Low-Concentration Photovoltaic System Based on Compound Parabolic Concentrators,” IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 382–386, Jul. 2012. doi: 10.1109/JPHOTOV.2012.2186283

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N. Sellami and T. K. Mallick, “Optical efficiency study of PV Crossed Compound Parabolic Concentrator,” Applied Energy, vol. 102, pp. 868–876, Feb. 2013. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.08.052

  • Uses a ray-tracing method to design and optimize three stationary dielectric asymmetric compound parabolic concentrators (DiACPCs) with acceptance half-angles of (0°/55°), (0°/66°) and (0°/77°), respectively to optimize in order to optimize the designs of concentrator applications in northern latitudes (>55 °N)
  • Concludes that Energy flux distribution at the receiver for diffuse radiation is found to be homogeneous
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H. Ali and P. Gandhidasan, “Performance Evaluation of Photovoltaic String with Compound Parabolic Concentrator,” Journal of Clean Energy Technologies, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 170–175, 2015. doi: 10.7763/JOCET.2015.V3.190[www.jocet.org/papers/190-R032.pdf]

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Booster reflectors

H. Tabor, “Mirror boosters for solar collectors,” Solar Energy, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 111–118, Jul. 1966. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(66)90025-9

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M. Rönnelid, B. Karlsson, P. Krohn, and J. Wennerberg, “Booster reflectors for PV modules in Sweden,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 279–291, May 2000. doi: 10.1002/1099-159X(200005/06)8:3<279::AID-PIP316>3.0.CO;2-#

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H. Tanaka, “Solar thermal collector augmented by flat plate booster reflector: Optimum inclination of collector and reflector,” Applied Energy, vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 1395–1404, Apr. 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.10.032

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Advantage of corrugated reflectors

M. RÖNNELID and B. KARLSSON, “THE USE OF CORRUGATED BOOSTER REFLECTORS FOR SOLAR COLLECTOR FIELDS,” Solar Energy, vol. 65, no. 6, pp. 343–351, Apr. 1999. doi:10.1016/S0038-092X(99)00009-2

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B. Perers, B. Karlsson, and M. Bergkvist, “Intensity distribution in the collector plane from structured booster reflectors with rolling grooves and corrugations,” Solar Energy, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 215–226, Aug. 1994.doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(94)90485-5

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Tracking Systems

Solar tracking systems are actuator devices employed to concentrate reflectors towards the Sun's direction. Concentrators should be able to direct the sunlight precisely onto solar cells with the aid of these devices. Single axis systems can turn the panels around the centre axis while Dual axis tracking is used to position a mirror and concentrate incoming radiation along a fixed axis towards a stationary receiver.

A. K. Agarwal, “Two axis tracking system for solar concentrators,” Renewable Energy, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 181–182, Apr. 1992. doi: 10.1016/0960-1481(92)90104-B

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B. Perers, B. Karlsson, and M. Bergkvist, “Intensity distribution in the collector plane from structured booster reflectors with rolling grooves and corrugations,” Solar Energy, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 215–226, Aug. 1994. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(94)90485-5

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J. C. Arboiro and G. Sala, “‘Self-learning Tracking’: a New Control Strategy for PV Concentrators,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 213–226, May 1997. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(199705/06)5:3<213::AID-PIP171>3.0.CO;2-7

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V. Poulek and M. Libra, “New solar tracker,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 113–120, Feb. 1998.doi : 10.1016/S0927-0248(97)00276-6

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B. J. Huang and F. S. Sun, “Feasibility study of one axis three positions tracking solar PV with low concentration ratio reflector,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 1273–1280, Apr. 2007. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2006.09.020

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H. Mousazadeh, A. Keyhani, A. Javadi, H. Mobli, K. Abrinia, and A. Sharifi, “A review of principle and sun-tracking methods for maximizing solar systems output,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 1800–1818, Oct. 2009. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2009.01.022

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C.-Y. Lee, P.-C. Chou, C.-M. Chiang, and C.-F. Lin, “Sun Tracking Systems: A Review,” Sensors, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 3875–3890, May 2009. doi: 10.3390/s90503875

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S. Ozcelik, H. Prakash, and R. Challoo, “Two-Axis Solar Tracker Analysis and Control for Maximum Power Generation,” Procedia Computer Science, vol. 6, pp. 457–462, 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2011.08.085

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S. I. Klychev, A. K. Fazylov, S. A. Orlov, and A. V. Burbo, “Design factors of sensors for the optical tracking systems of solar concentrators,” Appl. Sol. Energy, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 321–322, Mar. 2012. doi: 10.3103/S0003701X11040086

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P. K. Sen, K. Ashutosh, K. Bhuwanesh, Z. Engineer, S. Hegde, P. V. Sen, and P. Davies, “Linear Fresnel Mirror Solar Concentrator with Tracking,” Procedia Engineering, vol. 56, pp. 613–618, 2013. doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2013.03.167

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S. Yilmaz, H. Riza Ozcalik, O. Dogmus, F. Dincer, O. Akgol, and M. Karaaslan, “Design of two axes sun tracking controller with analytically solar radiation calculations,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 43, pp. 997–1005, Mar. 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.090

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Kirigami approach

Kirigami and Technology

Graham P. Collins, “Kirigami and technology cut a fine figure, together,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 113, no. 2, pp. 240–241. doi:10.1073/pnas.1523311113

  • Notion : Kirigami is a variant of origami, the art of paper folding. The words derive from the Japanese for cutting (kiru), folding (oru), and paper (kami).
  • Aim: To discuss how this art form has emerged into science to help develop new technologies.Author aims to provide insights into collaborations leading to authentic design forms in different fields.
  • Summary: 1. Kirigami pathway provides an excellent design opportunity to convert 2D forms to 3D forms just by simple folding and cutting transforms which can be applied from various scales nano to meso. 2. Kirigami way can alleviate stresses in structures leading to fracture and thus can be widely applied in 3D structures of optoelectronics and nanostructured biomedical devices. 3. This design pathway inspired people from ASU to manufacture flexible chain of Li-Ion batteries and also provided flexible design methodologies of single atom thick, out structured graphene sheets. This paper surmises current and future creative collaborations with a broader view of invocating new design principles.

T. C. Shyu, P. F. Damasceno, P. M. Dodd, A. Lamoureux, L. Xu, M. Shlian, M. Shtein, S. C. Glotzer, and N. A. Kotov, “A kirigami approach to engineering elasticity in nanocomposites through patterned defects,” Nat Mater, vol. 14, no. 8, pp. 785–789, Aug. 2015. doi: 10.1038/nmat4327

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How does a Kirigami approach helps solar photovolatics?

A. Lamoureux, K. Lee, M. Shlian, S. R. Forrest, and M. Shtein, “Dynamic kirigami structures for integrated solar tracking,” Nat Commun, vol. 6, p. 8092, Sep. 2015. doi:10.1038/ncomms9092

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Modelling

Link directly to Low level concentration for PV applications literature review

BDRV Based Modelling

R. W. Andrews, A. Pollard, and J. M. Pearce, “Photovoltaic system performance enhancement with non-tracking planar concentrators: Experimental results and BDRF based modelling,” in Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2013 IEEE 39th, 2013, pp. 0229–0234. doi: 10.1109/PVSC.2013.6744136

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Citations

  1. S. Kurtz, “Opportunities and challenges for development of a mature concentrating photovoltaic power industry,” Technical Report, NREL/TP-520- 43208, 2009
  2. Andrews, Rob W.; Pollard, Andrew; Pearce, Joshua M., "Photovoltaic system performance enhancement with non-tracking planar concentrators: Experimental results and BDRF based modelling," Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2013 IEEE 39th, pp.0229,0234, 16–21 June 2013. doi: 10.1109/PVSC.2013.6744136
  3. A. L. Luque and A. Viacheslav, Eds., "Concentrator Photovoltaics," vol. 130. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2007.(Chapter: 1 and 6). ISBN: 978-3-540-68796-2
  4. M. Šúri, T. A. Huld, E. D. Dunlop, and H. A. Ossenbrink,“Potential of solar electricity generation in the European Union member states and candidate countries,” Solar Energy, vol. 81, no. 10, pp. 1295–1305, Oct. 2007. doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2006.12.007


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