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====[http://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0033893667&origin=inward&txGid=0 R. M. Swanson, “The promise of concentrators,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 93–111, Jan. 2000. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(200001/02)8:1<93::AID-PIP303>3.0.CO;2-S]====
====[http://www.scopus.com/record/display.uri?eid=2-s2.0-0033893667&origin=inward&txGid=0 R. M. Swanson, “The promise of concentrators,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 93–111, Jan. 2000. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(200001/02)8:1<93::AID-PIP303>3.0.CO;2-S]====
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====[http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy15osti/63196.pdf D. A. W. B. Dr. Simon P. Philipps and D. S. K. Kelsey Horowitz, “Current Status of Concentrator Photovoltaic (CPV) Technology,” Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE in Freiburg, Germany & National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL in Golden, Colorado, USA, TP-6A20-63916, Sep. 2015.]====
====[http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy15osti/63196.pdf D. A. W. B. Dr. Simon P. Philipps and D. S. K. Kelsey Horowitz, “Current Status of Concentrator Photovoltaic (CPV) Technology,” Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE in Freiburg, Germany & National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL in Golden, Colorado, USA, TP-6A20-63916, Sep. 2015.]====

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Background

What are Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV)??

Wikipedia : Concentrator photovoltaic systems employ curved reflectors such as lenses and mirrors to focus incoming sun rays onto the solar cells to harvest solar energy with more efficiency measured as watt-peak Wp. They are often equipped with single or dual-axis solar trackers and cooling systems that promote dual-way power generation. Based on the intensities measured in number of suns, CPV systems are classified as Low concentration PV, High concentration PV, Medium concentration PV and Luminescent solar concentrators.

This idea of concentrating sun's radiation dates back to 212 B.C.The famous Greek inventor Archimedes used mirrors, later called as burning mirrors, to set enemy ships at blaze. Concentrators/reflectors use principles of optics (focal point) to concentrate sunlight onto absorbers/Solar cells.

K. G. T. Hollands, “A concentrator for thin-film solar cells,” Solar Energy, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 149–163, May 1971. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(71)90001-6

  • Considerations : V-Trough reflector as side walls with solar cells at the base; Seasonal tracking alone is considered but not diurnal tracking; Axis along east-west direction; Used thin-film polycrystalline cadmium Sulphide cells.
  • Assumptions: Side walls to be perfectly specular, gray surfaces; restricts the trough geometries studied to those where, with the solar beam normal to the base, two conditions are met: (a) the base is uniformly irradiated; (b) no ray suffers more than one reflection.
  • Aim: Determine yearly average direct-beam concentration factor for any incidence angle, opening angle and side-wall reflectance.
  • Findings: Concludes that total yearly mean concentration factors of the order of 2 are possible with V-trough concentrators.
  • Imp concepts: Calculations on Solar geometry (N-S & E-W).
  • Limitations: Side- walls are ideal specular reflectors.

R. M. Swanson, “The promise of concentrators,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 93–111, Jan. 2000. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(200001/02)8:1<93::AID-PIP303>3.0.CO;2-S

  • Considerations :
  • Assumptions:
  • Aim:
  • Findings:
  • Imp concepts:
  • Limitations:

D. A. W. B. Dr. Simon P. Philipps and D. S. K. Kelsey Horowitz, “Current Status of Concentrator Photovoltaic (CPV) Technology,” Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE in Freiburg, Germany & National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL in Golden, Colorado, USA, TP-6A20-63916, Sep. 2015.

A. K. Pandey, V. V. Tyagi, J. A. Selvaraj, N. A. Rahim, and S. K. Tyagi, “Recent advances in solar photovoltaic systems for emerging trends and advanced applications,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 53, pp. 859–884, Jan. 2016.10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.043

Low concentration photovoltaics (LCPV)

Low concentration PV systems can be illuminated with intensities less than 20 suns [1] which can be varied up to 100 suns. LCPV systems eliminate the need of complex cooling systems and are often facilitated with booster reflectors. LCPV systems doesn't require active tracking mechanisms due to wide acceptance angles [2]. These can sufficed with single-axis tracking system yet maintaining 35-40% increased power output. The reflected radiation incident on these modules depends on the clearness of the index of the location [3] [4] and thus they are more effective when installed where direct radiation is a significant percentage of the global radiation (South Europe, Northern Africa, Southern states of the USA, etc.).

Measuring Intensity in Suns:  Intensity of sunlight illuminating on PV cells are measured as 'Suns'. 'One Sun' is the amount of energy drawn to an object openly exposed out on a cloudless day which is approximately 100 watts per square foot.

Concept of Reflectors-Concentrators

The efficacy of incorporating reflectors or concentrators for PV cells or modules is to intensify the incident radiation i.e., to increase incident radiation per m^2. These increase the output efficiency leading to reduction of capital costs. The main features of reflectors are high reflectance, low scattering and low degradation i.e., loss of reflectance over time.

Link directly to Understanding_solar_concentrators

H. Tabor, “Stationary mirror systems for solar collectors,” Solar Energy, vol. 2, no. 3–4, pp. 27–33, Jul. 1958. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(58)90051-3

A. Rabl, “Solar concentrators with maximal concentration for cylindrical absorbers,” Applied Optics, vol. 15, no. 7, p. 1871, Jul. 1976. doi: 10.1364/AO.15.001871

A. Rabl, “Comparison of solar concentrators,” Solar Energy, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 93–111, 1976.doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(76)90043-8[1]

  • Analyses the geometric concentration ratio of different types of concentrators.
  • Concludes that there is a nonuniformity of the flux density distribution on the absorber.

A. Rabl and R. Winston, “Ideal concentrators for finite sources and restricted exit angles,” Applied Optics, vol. 15, no. 11, p. 2880, Nov. 1976. doi: 10.1364/AO.15.002880

D. P. Grimmer, K. G. Zinn, K. C. Herr, and B. E. Wood, “Augmented Solar Energy Collection Using Various Planar Reflective Surfaces: Theoretical Calculations and Experimental Results,” Los Alamos Scientific Lab., N.Mex. (USA), LA-7041, Apr. 1978

R. W. Stacey and P. G. McCormick, “Effect of concentration on the performance of flat plate photovoltaic modules,” Solar Energy, vol. 33, no. 6, pp. 565–569, 1984. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(84)90012-4

G. Smestad, H. Ries, R. Winston, and E. Yablonovitch, “The thermodynamic limits of light concentrators,” Solar Energy Materials, vol. 21, no. 2–3, pp. 99–111, Dec. 1990. doi: 10.1016/0165-1633(90)90047-5

R. P. Friedman, J. M. Gordon, and H. Ries, “New high-flux two-stage optical designs for parabolic solar concentrators,” Solar Energy, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 317–325, 1993. doi:10.1016/0038-092X(93)90144-D

B. Perers and B. Karlsson, “External reflectors for large solar collector arrays, simulation model and experimental results,” Solar Energy, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 327–337, 1993.doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(93)90145-E

S. Hess and V. I. Hanby, “Collector Simulation Model with Dynamic Incidence Angle Modifier for Anisotropic Diffuse Irradiance,” Energy Procedia, vol. 48, pp. 87–96, 2014. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2014.02.011

V. P. Anand, M. M. Khan, E. Ameen, V. Amuthan, and B. Pesala, “Performance improvement of solar module system using flat plate reflectors,” in 2014 International Conference on Advances in Electrical Engineering (ICAEE), 2014, pp. 1–4. doi: 10.1109/ICAEE.2014.6838547

S. Hess,“Stationary booster reflectors for solar thermal process heat generation,” SASEC, 2015

V-trough solar concentrators

J. Freilich and J. M. Gordon, “Case study of a central-station grid-intertie photovoltaic system with V-trough concentration,” Solar Energy, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 267–273, Jan. 1991. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(91)90093-C

N. Fraidenraich, “Design procedure of V-trough cavities for photovoltaic systems,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 43–54, Jan. 1998.doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(199801/02)6:1<43::AID-PIP200>3.0.CO;2-P

J. Bione, O. C. Vilela, and N. Fraidenraich, “Comparison of the performance of PV water pumping systems driven by fixed, tracking and V-trough generators,” Solar Energy, vol. 76, no. 6, pp. 703–711, 2004. doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2004.01.003

C. S. Sangani and C. S. Solanki, “Experimental evaluation of V-trough (2 suns) PV concentrator system using commercial PV modules,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 91, no. 6, pp. 453–459, Mar. 2007.doi: 10.1016/j.solmat.2006.10.012

N. Martín and J. M. Ruiz, “Optical performance analysis of V-trough PV concentrators,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 339–348, Jun. 2008. doi: 10.1002/pip.817

C. S. Solanki, C. S. Sangani, D. Gunashekar, and G. Antony, “Enhanced heat dissipation of V-trough PV modules for better performance,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 92, no. 12, pp. 1634–1638, Dec. 2008. doi: 10.1016/j.solmat.2008.07.022

F. Reis, M. C. Brito, V. Corregidor, J. Wemans, and G. Sorasio, “Modeling the performance of low concentration photovoltaic systems,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 94, no. 7, pp. 1222–1226, Jul. 2010. doi: 10.1016/j.solmat.2010.03.010

G. M. Tina and P. F. Scandura, “Case study of a grid connected with a battery photovoltaic system: V-trough concentration vs. single-axis tracking,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 64, pp. 569–578, Dec. 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2012.05.029

Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPC)

The Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) is a nonimaging optical-design concept that allows maximum concentration of incident energy onto a receiver. This design incorporates a trough-like reflecting wall by which radiation is concentrated to the maximum allowed by physical principles of optics.

A. Rabl, N. B. Goodman, and R. Winston, “Practical design considerations for CPC solar collectors,” Solar Energy, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 373–381, Jan. 1979. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(79)90192-0

T. Tao, Z. Hongfei, H. Kaiyan, and A. Mayere, “A new trough solar concentrator and its performance analysis,” Solar Energy, vol. 85, no. 1, pp. 198–207, 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2010.08.017

  • A solar concentrator system consisting of a CPC, a secondary reflection plane mirror, and a parabolic trough concentrator

N. Sarmah, B. S. Richards, and T. K. Mallick, “Evaluation and optimization of the optical performance of low-concentrating dielectric compound parabolic concentrator using ray-tracing methods,” Applied Optics, vol. 50, no. 19, p. 3303, Jul. 2011.doi: 10.1364/AO.50.003303

M. A. Schuetz, K. A. Shell, S. A. Brown, G. S. Reinbolt, R. H. French, and R. J. Davis, “Design and Construction of a ~7x Low-Concentration Photovoltaic System Based on Compound Parabolic Concentrators,” IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 382–386, Jul. 2012. doi: 10.1109/JPHOTOV.2012.2186283

N. Sellami and T. K. Mallick, “Optical efficiency study of PV Crossed Compound Parabolic Concentrator,” Applied Energy, vol. 102, pp. 868–876, Feb. 2013. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.08.052

  • Uses a ray-tracing method to design and optimize three stationary dielectric asymmetric compound parabolic concentrators (DiACPCs) with acceptance half-angles of (0°/55°), (0°/66°) and (0°/77°), respectively to optimize in order to optimize the designs of concentrator applications in northern latitudes (>55 °N)
  • Concludes that Energy flux distribution at the receiver for diffuse radiation is found to be homogeneous

H. Ali and P. Gandhidasan, “Performance Evaluation of Photovoltaic String with Compound Parabolic Concentrator,” Journal of Clean Energy Technologies, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 170–175, 2015. doi: 10.7763/JOCET.2015.V3.190[www.jocet.org/papers/190-R032.pdf]

Booster reflectors

H. Tabor, “Mirror boosters for solar collectors,” Solar Energy, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 111–118, Jul. 1966. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(66)90025-9

M. Rönnelid, B. Karlsson, P. Krohn, and J. Wennerberg, “Booster reflectors for PV modules in Sweden,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 279–291, May 2000. doi: 10.1002/1099-159X(200005/06)8:3<279::AID-PIP316>3.0.CO;2-#

H. Tanaka, “Solar thermal collector augmented by flat plate booster reflector: Optimum inclination of collector and reflector,” Applied Energy, vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 1395–1404, Apr. 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.10.032

Advantage of corrugated reflectors

M. RÖNNELID and B. KARLSSON, “THE USE OF CORRUGATED BOOSTER REFLECTORS FOR SOLAR COLLECTOR FIELDS,” Solar Energy, vol. 65, no. 6, pp. 343–351, Apr. 1999. doi:10.1016/S0038-092X(99)00009-2

B. Perers, B. Karlsson, and M. Bergkvist, “Intensity distribution in the collector plane from structured booster reflectors with rolling grooves and corrugations,” Solar Energy, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 215–226, Aug. 1994.doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(94)90485-5

Tracking Systems

Solar tracking systems are actuator devices employed to concentrate reflectors towards the Sun's direction. Concentrators should be able to direct the sunlight precisely onto solar cells with the aid of these devices. Single axis systems can turn the panels around the centre axis while Dual axis tracking is used to position a mirror and concentrate incoming radiation along a fixed axis towards a stationary receiver.

A. K. Agarwal, “Two axis tracking system for solar concentrators,” Renewable Energy, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 181–182, Apr. 1992. doi: 10.1016/0960-1481(92)90104-B

B. Perers, B. Karlsson, and M. Bergkvist, “Intensity distribution in the collector plane from structured booster reflectors with rolling grooves and corrugations,” Solar Energy, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 215–226, Aug. 1994. doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(94)90485-5

J. C. Arboiro and G. Sala, “‘Self-learning Tracking’: a New Control Strategy for PV Concentrators,” Prog. Photovolt: Res. Appl., vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 213–226, May 1997. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-159X(199705/06)5:3<213::AID-PIP171>3.0.CO;2-7

V. Poulek and M. Libra, “New solar tracker,” Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 113–120, Feb. 1998.doi : 10.1016/S0927-0248(97)00276-6

B. J. Huang and F. S. Sun, “Feasibility study of one axis three positions tracking solar PV with low concentration ratio reflector,” Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 48, no. 4, pp. 1273–1280, Apr. 2007. doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2006.09.020

H. Mousazadeh, A. Keyhani, A. Javadi, H. Mobli, K. Abrinia, and A. Sharifi, “A review of principle and sun-tracking methods for maximizing solar systems output,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 1800–1818, Oct. 2009. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2009.01.022

C.-Y. Lee, P.-C. Chou, C.-M. Chiang, and C.-F. Lin, “Sun Tracking Systems: A Review,” Sensors, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 3875–3890, May 2009. doi: 10.3390/s90503875

S. Ozcelik, H. Prakash, and R. Challoo, “Two-Axis Solar Tracker Analysis and Control for Maximum Power Generation,” Procedia Computer Science, vol. 6, pp. 457–462, 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.procs.2011.08.085

S. I. Klychev, A. K. Fazylov, S. A. Orlov, and A. V. Burbo, “Design factors of sensors for the optical tracking systems of solar concentrators,” Appl. Sol. Energy, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 321–322, Mar. 2012. doi: 10.3103/S0003701X11040086

P. K. Sen, K. Ashutosh, K. Bhuwanesh, Z. Engineer, S. Hegde, P. V. Sen, and P. Davies, “Linear Fresnel Mirror Solar Concentrator with Tracking,” Procedia Engineering, vol. 56, pp. 613–618, 2013. doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2013.03.167

S. Yilmaz, H. Riza Ozcalik, O. Dogmus, F. Dincer, O. Akgol, and M. Karaaslan, “Design of two axes sun tracking controller with analytically solar radiation calculations,” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 43, pp. 997–1005, Mar. 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.11.090

Kirigami approach

Kirigami and Technology

Graham P. Collins, “Kirigami and technology cut a fine figure, together,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 113, no. 2, pp. 240–241. doi:10.1073/pnas.1523311113

T. C. Shyu, P. F. Damasceno, P. M. Dodd, A. Lamoureux, L. Xu, M. Shlian, M. Shtein, S. C. Glotzer, and N. A. Kotov, “A kirigami approach to engineering elasticity in nanocomposites through patterned defects,” Nat Mater, vol. 14, no. 8, pp. 785–789, Aug. 2015. doi: 10.1038/nmat4327

How does a Kirigami approach helps solar photovolatics?

A. Lamoureux, K. Lee, M. Shlian, S. R. Forrest, and M. Shtein, “Dynamic kirigami structures for integrated solar tracking,” Nat Commun, vol. 6, p. 8092, Sep. 2015. doi:10.1038/ncomms9092

Modelling

Link directly to Low level concentration for PV applications literature review

BDRV Based Modelling

R. W. Andrews, A. Pollard, and J. M. Pearce, “Photovoltaic system performance enhancement with non-tracking planar concentrators: Experimental results and BDRF based modelling,” in Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2013 IEEE 39th, 2013, pp. 0229–0234. doi: 10.1109/PVSC.2013.6744136

Citations

  1. S. Kurtz, “Opportunities and challenges for development of a mature concentrating photovoltaic power industry,” Technical Report, NREL/TP-520- 43208, 2009
  2. Andrews, Rob W.; Pollard, Andrew; Pearce, Joshua M., "Photovoltaic system performance enhancement with non-tracking planar concentrators: Experimental results and BDRF based modelling," Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2013 IEEE 39th, pp.0229,0234, 16–21 June 2013. doi: 10.1109/PVSC.2013.6744136
  3. A. L. Luque and A. Viacheslav, Eds., "Concentrator Photovoltaics," vol. 130. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2007.(Chapter: 1 and 6). ISBN: 978-3-540-68796-2
  4. M. Šúri, T. A. Huld, E. D. Dunlop, and H. A. Ossenbrink,“Potential of solar electricity generation in the European Union member states and candidate countries,” Solar Energy, vol. 81, no. 10, pp. 1295–1305, Oct. 2007. doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2006.12.007


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