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== ABSTRACT  ==
[[Image:CCAT_natural_Plaster;_finished_wall_front.jpg|thumb|right|fig. a: The front of the finished wall; note the organically shaped reveal window allowing a view of substrate materials.]]
''Also see [[CCAT Natural Exterior Wall Plaster and Paint, part 2]]; or skip to [[CCAT Natural Exterior Wall Plaster and Paint, Appendix]].''


   
== Abstract ==
 
This project was a test of natural plasters, finished with a protective lime-wash coat of natural paint, for outdoor application. The client was Campus Center for Appropriate Technology (CCAT), who was expected to fund the materials, as well as provide the test surface of a wood frame wall. The wall was constructed of two different 4' by 4' natural surfaces: one in-filled with paper-crete bricks mortared together with paper-crete slurry, and one stick framed with wood lath and holding infill of cob (also known as wattle & daub). Both sections were constructed by Myles Danforth as his class project and were in the test phase. Following research, work on the plastering and finishing half of the project took place in three phases.


# Test a variety of natural plaster and pigment formulations.
# Based on the plaster results from Phase 1, select and apply two plasters for each section of the test wall, resulting in four final test sections.
# Based on the pigment results from Phase 1, paint the plastered surface with a natural paint to match to the nearby official HSU signage columns.


This article resulted from a test of natural plasters for outdoor application; finished with a protective and coloring coat of natural paint, limewash. The client was CCAT (Campus Center for Appropriate Technology), at Humboldt State University, Arcata CA; initiated by my participation in the class Engineering 305 which required an appropriate technology semester project. CCAT was expected to fund the materials as well as the test surface; a smallish wood frame wall which is being prepared with two different natural wall surfaces: one 4 by 4ft section in-filled with paper-crete bricks mortared together with paper-crete slurry; and one 4 by 4ft section stick framed with wood lath to hold infill of clay-slip-straw (also known as wattle & daub), respectively. These two surfaces were also both intended as a test, and constructed by Myles Danforth as his class project. Following research, work on my plasters and paint will take place in roughly three phases. First, test a variety of natural plaster and pigment formulations in order to then... second, select two plasters for application onto the test wall, each of the two plasters to be applied to each of the two experimental surfaces, for four final test strips. Then finally, third will be the painting of the now plastered surface with a natural paint which I'll have attempted to match to the nearby HSU official signage columns. I'm taking workshops in Natural Plastering and then Painting under Penelyse Goodshield of the organization Sustainable Nations as preparation, as well as doing book and internet research. I had planned to do the project during the spring semester, but between Myles needing to build the wall, followed by a long rainy season that led into finals, the project became a summer one. I had hoped to use volunteer/workshop labor but having outsiders on CCAT grounds over summer months conflicted with CCAT policy as described me by the interns. Therefor, aside from some hours put in by classmates at semester end, I performed all the labor myself, which I would not endorse as it was a very manually intensive project eating up about a month and a half. Be that as it may, the finished product seemed to achieve the goals we had set forth, details follow bellow.<gallery>
In preparation for this project, I took workshops in Natural Plastering and Painting under Pennelys Goodshield of [http://sustainablenations.org/ Sustainable Nations], and conducted book and online research. I conducted this project over the summer of 2009. With the exception of some assistance from classmates, the labor input was all my own. I would not endorse approaching such a project alone, as it was a very labor intensive. The finished product, however, achieved the goals set forth.
Image:CCAT_natural_Plaster;_finished_wall_front.jpg|fig a: The front of the finished wall; note the organically shaped reveal window allowing a view of substrate materials.  
[[Image:CCAT natural Plaster; finished wall back.jpg|thumb|left|fig. b: The back of the finished wall.]]
Image:CCAT natural Plaster; finished wall back.jpg|fig. b: The back of the finished wall.
</gallery>


== Introduction  ==
== Introduction  ==


I took Engineering 305: Appropriate Technology as the last class needed to earn a Minor in Appropriate Technology, or as I like to joke, my appropriate tech. merit badge. The class requires an intensive project that is to include research and hands on elements as well. Projects can be entirely self-designed, or generated through a list of projects requested by various parties such as the Campus Center for Appropriate Technology- CCAT. I'd had thoughts of attempting to refine previous projects by attempting to 'assembly line' them to increase efficiency and practicality. However, in discussion with Professor Lonny Grafman and some student colleagues, (notably, Myles Danforth, who would prove knowledgeable and extremely supportive and helpful throughout), we decided I should draw upon my decade worth of experience as a painting contractor (interior/exterior, commercial/residential) and take on a CCAT requested project to finish a wall with natural plasters and paints. I was to design this wall through experimental methods to determine if such earthen-style construction would prove applicable to the moist Pacific Northwest environs of Arcata, California. We agreed this project would be a good fit because as a painting contractor I would be more knowledgeable in the finishing tools and techniques known to mainstream contractors than most of my student colleagues, and hopefully I might be able to go on and use what I learned in this project in a professional capacity outside of school. I've long had an interest in natural paints, if not necessarily plasters, and this was the perfect opportunity to learn the ropes. Moreover I know I've a good 'touch' for such things and thought I'd be able to complete the project to high aesthetic standards regardless of how the materials experiment turned out.
Taking up the second part of the experiment, I researched and tested different appropriate-tech plasters with which I finished Myles' wall. After research and testing of a number of plaster formulas, I settled on two to apply to the wall so that weathering and stability could be compared over time. A clay-slip is usually applied as a binder between the wall itself and later plaster<ref name="Goodshield">'''Goodshield, P. (2009). Workshop Director, Sustainable Nations, (http://sustainablenations.org/). (K. S. Perry, Interviewer) Arcata, CA.''' First I took I work-shop with Ms. Goodshield on natural plaster and lime-wash. Then I was able to interview her several times and she stopped by the site to consult once.</ref>; thus, the application of a clay-slip was my first step in actual construction. As we jumped through the bureaucratic hoops of campus building codes, we learned from the Building and Maintenance department that any permanent structure we built (including the experimental wall) needed to match the approved campus color scheme; as a result, part of the definition of 'appropriate' for my end of the project was to get the color right, which was purely a bureaucratic necessity but a necessity nonetheless. As it soon came to my attention that natural pigments stretched much farther in paints than in plasters, devising an appropriate natural paint was added to my to-do list; it is much more appropriate from a financial standpoint and a resource conservation standpoint to use less pigment, (usually mined minerals). In tune with CCAT's educational mission, Myles requested that a window be built into the plaster so that the paper-crete and wattle & daub would remain visible to future students and builders. My end of the project was thus broken into multiple tasks:
 
Which leads my thoughts to the idea of what an appropriate technology is and is not. I don't mean this statement as any type of definitive, holistic discussion of the issue; but when I weighed the idea of designing my own project vs. going with the CCAT work-order, it seemed that a project for the sake of an assignment could not be deemed as appropriate as one addressing a need. CCAT intended to build in the next year or two, a new building on their grounds which they hoped to construct using natural or earthen materials. The question was what if any such materials were suited to their site: just on the edge of the redwood rain-forest, the location is often shady in a town which is near the ocean, even closer to a bay, and known for its' wet overcast conditions, and regular dense fogs. The local amer-indians, (split into several tribal groups and still plentiful in the region,) seemed to favor the abundant forest products as building materials; in that those closest to the old ways here didn't use earthen construction, there seemed to be a legitimate question as to whether earthen building was at all suited to this dank environment. Since the work was going to lead up to a real and needed building project, finding out if these techniques and materials would work here seemed like the most appropriate use of time, material, and energy.


To this end CCAT requested an experiment be done, in two parts, in order to determine appropriateness of these building technologies in the Pacific Northwest, in particular their own grounds. The first part was to research and experiment with different 'appropriate' materials to actually build an experimental wall with; asking that two materials be used in the finished wall to provide an experiment in comparing long-term weathering and stability. This first experimental work-order was taken up and completed by Myles Danforth. After determining that, a traditional foundation and wooden frame would work best for the site, Miles took on the job of building the wall itself. Myles' own Appropedia page (http://www.appropedia.org/CCAT_natural_wall_construction) details his process, but I'll say here that he settled for his two final experimental materials/construction technologies on a wattle &amp; daub section, and a paper-crete brick section.  
# Materials research
# Materials acquisition
# Experimentation with plaster recipes
# Experimentation with paint pigments
# Designing (with Myles' advisement) and installing the window section
# Applying the clay slip
# Applying four strips of experimental plaster (one strip of each of my two final plasters over each of Myles' two wall materials)
# Applying lime-wash color coat.
# Curing the lime.


[[Image:CCAT_natural_Plaster;_pre-plastered_wall.jpg|thumb|A shot of the wall as Myles left it; before I started. Paper-crete is on the left in gray and the Wattle & Daub the earthen colored section to the right.  The rest of the structure includes gravel bed, brick foundation, timber framing and tile roof.]]
I considered trying different paints as well, but this seemed to put too many layers of variables into the experiment. Instead, I decided on a single paint formulation during the research phase; the only experiment in the paint coat was how well I could match the school column color as per the Building and Maintenance department requirement.
 
The second, and my part of the experimental work-order, was to research and experiment with different appropriate-tech plasters over which to finish Myles' wall; again settling with two different materials to actually apply to the wall so that weathering and stability could be compared over time. I learned from Ms. Goodshield that a clay-slip is usually applied as a binder between the wall itself and later plaster so the application of such would be my first step in actual construction. As we jumped through the bureaucratic hoops of campus building codes, we learned from the Building and Maintenance department that any permanent structure we built (which this was to be), needed to match the approved campus color scheme; so part of the definition of 'appropriate' for my end of the project was to get the color right- purely a bureaucratic necessity but a necessity none-the-less. As it soon came to my attention that natural pigments stretched much farther in paints than in plasters, devising an appropriate natural paint was added to my to-do list; it being much more appropriate from a financial standpoint and a resource conservation standpoint to use less pigment (usually mined minerals) in getting the color matched. In tune with CCAT's educational mission, Myles requested that a window be built into the plaster so that the wattle &amp; daub, and paper-crete would remain visible to future students and builders. So my end of the project would be broken into multiple tasks: materials research, experimentation with plaster recipes, experimentation with paint pigments, designing (with Myles' advisement) the window section, then applying the clay slip, applying four strips of experimental plaster- a strip of my two plaster finalists over each of Myles' two wall materials, and making sure the window was worked in. I considered trying different paints as well, but this seemed to put one layer too many of variables into the experiment; so I decided on a single paint formulation without undue experiment during the research phase; the only experiment in the paint coat being how well I could match the school column color as per the Building and Maintenance department requirement.  
 
<br>


== Project Requirements ==
== Project Requirements ==
As opposed to mainstream construction and technological applications that are of a more generally one-size-fits-all approach, the Appropriate Technology approach requires carefully thinking through your goals to find a best balance for the given circumstance. The goal for this project was to design and apply materials that the good folks at CCAT would observe over the course of the following year, the long term objective being to build an entire structure using the best materials as determined by what holds-up on this wall. Since the project is for CCAT, features of Appropriate Technologies like LOCAL/NATURAL/OR RECYCLED MATERIALS, COST-EFFECTIVENESS, REPEATABILITY BY NON-EXPERT BUILDERS, and WORK DURATION, will all be important. However, because the intention is to eventually make permanent structure[s] based on this experiment, I'd have to rank DURABILITY as the highest goal to be achieved (tempered by these others). Moreover, the HSU Building and Maintenance department requires permanent structures to match approved color schemes, so this bureaucratic requirement of MATCHING THE APPROVED COLOR SCHEME will also of necessity be central in deeming the project successful or not. Finally, as a painter by trade I see AESTHETICS as having a high value for structures of all types; so this too will be a consideration.
As opposed to mainstream construction and technological applications that are more often of a one-size-fits-all approach, the Appropriate Technology approach requires carefully thinking through your goals to find a best balance for the given circumstance. The immediate goal of this project was to design and apply[[Image:CCAT_natural_Plaster;_pre-plastered_wall.jpg|thumb|right|A shot of the wall after Myles finished building it; it has a gravel bed, brick foundation, post frame, and shingle roof. The left gray half is the paper-crete brick and mortar, the beige right is the cob filled wattle & daub.]] materials that the good folks at CCAT would observe over the course of the following year; the long term objective being to build an entire structure using the best materials as determined by the results from this experimental wall. Since the project is for CCAT, features of [[Appropriate Technologies]] like LOCAL, NATURAL, or RECYCLED MATERIALS, COST-EFFECTIVENESS, REPEATABILITY BY NON-EXPERT BUILDERS, and WORK DURATION, were important. However, because the intention is to eventually make permanent structure(s) based on this experiment, I ranked DURABILITY (tempered by these others) as the biggest priority. Since the HSU Building and Maintenance department requires permanent structures to match approved color schemes, this bureaucratic requirement of MATCHING THE APPROVED COLOR SCHEME was also central in determining the success of this project. Finally, as a painter by trade, I consider AESTHETICS to have a high value for structures of all types.


== Design  ==
== Design  ==


===Materials===
===Materials===
First on the list of tasks was materials preparation. Research told me that traditional technologies for earthen plasters that are water-resistant are lime (the mineral) and manure; another choice might have been using a natural oil such as linseed oil as an additive (here termed 'amendment'), but oils block water completely, whereas Myles' wall materials (paper-crete &amp; wattle &amp; daub) are often used for their vapor-permeability. Vapor-permeable surfaces are considered advantageous in natural building because they allow interior and exterior humidity levels to attain an equilibrium, by first absorbing in, then wicking away excess moisture; as opposed to conventional building which exerts great effort in its' war to keep the elements out, (Guelberth, Rose & Chiras, 2003). Using an oil would eliminate this vapor-permeable quality of the wall materials so it made sense to go with the lime and manure plasters which are themselves vapor-permeable while retaining a high factor of durability in wet conditions. I found a variety of different formulas for mixing plaster using these key ingredients. Materials I'd need by way of ingredients included Builders Sand, Lime Putty, Manure, Straw, Clay and Wheat Paste. I'll discuss each briefly.
The first task was materials preparation. Research informed me that traditional technologies for water-resistant earthen plasters are lime (the mineral) and manure <ref name="Guelberth">'''Guelberth, Cedar Rose &amp; Dan Chiras. The Natural Plaster Book: Earthen, Lime, and Gypsum Plasters for Natural Homes. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Publishers, 2003.'''Of all the books I read through, only one did I find myself drawn back to over and again.... This book seemed to have, compared to others, the most agreed upon and middle-of-the-road recipes; I derived all my basic formulas from it and barely scratched the surface. </ref>; another choice might have been using a natural oil such as linseed oil as an additive (here termed amendment)<ref name="Guelberth"/>, but oils block water more completely, whereas Myles' wall materials of paper-crete and wattle & daub are often used for their vapor-permeability <ref>'''Danforth, Myles. (2009, Spring). (K. Scott Perry,Interviewer) Arcata, CA.''' Myles was knowledgeable and had plenty of helpful advice.</ref>. Vapor-permeable surfaces are considered advantageous in natural building because they allow interior and exterior humidity levels to attain equilibrium by first absorbing in, then wicking away excess moisture, not allowing it to build up within <ref name="Guelberth"/>. Using an oil amended plaster would eliminate this vapor-permeable quality of the wall materials, so it made sense to use the vapor-permeable, yet humidity durable, lime and manure plasters. I found a variety of formulas for mixing plaster using these key ingredients. Additional ingredients included builder's sand, lime-putty, manure, straw, clay and wheat-paste. A brief discussion of each: qualities, how I prepared them for use, where I got them, etc., follows.
 
=====Builders Sand=====
Sand is a component of most plasters; on a molecular level it is crystalline in structure and so interlocks like a 3-d jigsaw puzzle providing Mechanical strength (Engineering 305). I was told I could have used beach sand for this but that mixed grade builders sand is best so as to provide different size crystals to interlock; more uniform sized sand particles like I would find at a given beach would create weaker jigsaw-esque bonds. This might be OK on a given project, but as Durability is one of my chief criteria I wanted to test using the most durable ingredients. Another problem with beach sand would be the difficulty of washing it, as natural salts would represent an unquantifiable (for my purposes) variable, possibly reacting in my plaster recipes. Factory sand represents a higher embedded energy cost true, but again allowed me to test these formulas at their strongest potential quality levels without an odd variable throwing off the results. A practical, non-experimental design might well opt for the lower embedded energy and financial cost, and and added labor cost of washing local sand. My mixed grade builders sand was donated from ripped so unsaleable bags available at the local hardware store.
 
=====Lime Putty=====
Lime is a basic ingredient in earthen cements and as such adds a binding quality to the mix, as well as being know for high durability under adverse weather conditions, (Guelberth, Rose & Chiras, 2003). Lime is available at hardware stores in the form of a powder- in my case Type S Hydrated Lime. It is important to ensure one acquires builders lime and not agricultural lime; also there are a variety of lime powders so be sure you know which one you get as they all require different handling. '''''BEWARE- LIME IN ALL FORMS IS CAUSTIC AND WILL BURN YOU; DO NOT GET POWDER IN EYES OR INHALE! AVOID SKIN CONTACT AND KEEP VINEGAR ON HAND AS A CHEMICAL COUNTER-AGENT TO TREAT SKIN BURNS''''' (even given gloves and rubber cover-alls I managed several chemical burns over the course of the project, thanks be to vinegar). Lime Putty is produced by slaking (soaking) lime, in whatever form, in water. For Type S Hydrated Lime it can be used within 1/2 hour of mixing, but all lime putties improve in quality with increased slaking time. I was lucky enough to be able to slake my lime for a period of several months as I acquired it early in my spring semester and didn't start construction until the summer months. Keep in mind that the lime that went into the finished wall had slaked for several weeks longer than the test batch so was that much improved. To slake the lime it is necessary to have a large heat and chemical resistant, clean container, I used a 35 gallon metal trash bin that I bought new. Unless using high-magnesium quicklime it is important to add water first, then slowly add the lime powder. You will note a rise in temperature and a chemical boiling as the ingredients begin to interact, potentially explosively, which is why you add the water slowly so the reaction is drawn out. I wore my chem-resistant cover-alls, gloves, a respirator and goggles during this process. Be sure to stir well so no clumps of lime powder remain untouched and so unreacting to the water. Eventually (follow directions according to lime-type) the mixture attains a putty-like consistency about like a thin oatmeal. When well mixed make sure to leave a few inches of water on top to keep it from dehydrating then leave to slake for as long as you can.
 
=====Manure=====
Manure is a traditional building material in many parts of the world, it mixes well with earthen ingredients, retaining vapor-permeability, while containing natural enzymes which make it water-resistant, and also natural (undigested) fibers (see section on Straw for discussion of Tensile strength), (Guelberth, Rose & Chiras, 2003). I opted for horse manure as there was a stable up the road which was happy to have me reduce their manure pile. My manure was therefor not fresh. So this too I placed in a 35 gallon container and added water to to bring it back to a softer more workable state. However, because it had been sitting around for some time there were issues with both mold and bugs. Gross as it sounds, to account for this I first carefully picked through the manure selecting only the least bug and mold ridden parts to keep. A previous class (Engineering 114) had revealed that the household natural cleanser Borax is used in earthen building as a mold inhibitor. I also knew of its' usefulness in killing bugs as I'm told it works its' way into their joints destroying them. This might sound cruel to animal lovers but a bug infested wall was not an option. I did not find clear indications of how much to use however, so I guess-timated adding about a half-cup of Borax powder over about each foot of depth of manure in my bin. This seemed adequate for squelching the mold but the bugs would return so I'd mix in more in an add-hoc manner over the weeks as I went. Certainly the Borax was but a small percentage of my manure, but I can not account for it by weight, volume or any other measure of how much went in, so the more scientific minded should be aware of this 'loose' variable in my formulas. &nbsp;(Some formulas contain it explicitly and are noted by volume)
 
=====Straw=====
Straw is used in earthen building to provide Tensile strength (Engineering 305); think of it as akin to metal rebar in mainstream building. Straw allows the surfaces to bend and flex without coming apart, it also can be thought of as a material that spreads stresses as opposed to letting stress fracture off a given section of plaster. Research said that straw should be between 1-3 inches in length for a plaster, well dried with no mold, (Guelberth, Rose & Chiras, 2003). One method that was recommended for me to cut the straw to the right length was to put it in a trash bin and weed-wack it. I couldn't find anybody to loan me their Weed-Wacker to try it though, and can't blame them, for advice or not such an approach sounds like an abuse-of-power-tools (probably would not be 'appropriate use of tech.' to destroy a power tool so as require its' replacement). Instead I got a wheel-barrel full at a time and cut it down with scissors using gloves as the stuff is tougher on the hands than you might guess. Cutting more straw became a welcome break during the project, I'd recommend not preparing it all at once to allow an easier task to change gears to as you work. Of course with more bodies it might not matter, working by myself it was a welcome relaxer though. Ms. Goodshield suggested that one inch straw is recommended for top coats of plaster, first (Key or Scratch) coats should have longer straw to give later coats material to grip to. Before I applied my finish coat of plaster I actually took scissors and trimmed the wall to ensure longer pieces would not stick out after the finish coat went on. I had straw bales on-hand at the site that I was welcomed to work from. 
 
=====Clay=====
Clay, like sand and straw, is a basic component of bricks and plasters. Though I'm focusing in on lime and manure I wanted to try some more raw earthen mixes to see if they could compare durability-wise, if so such mixes would represent lower embedded energy costs than the lime for sure, than manure anywhere where ruminant animals are not common. In basic earthen plasters clay acts as the glue that holds the other elements together, (Guelberth, Rose & Chiras, 2003). Clay is available for sale through potters suppliers, etc, but can also be dug right out of the ground. However, high silt ratios in ground clay are bad for building. There are several easy tests to determine clay suitability, the easiest being to roll it between your fingers to make a clay 'worm'. If the worm holds its' shape then the silt content is low enough to make a decent building clay. A more precise, but still field test is available on Myles' page: http://www.appropedia.org/CCAT_natural_wall_construction. Here I cheated, when I brought my resident expert, Ms. Goodshield out to review my materials before I began, she waxed eloquently about how wonderful the quality of the clay was at the CCAT grounds where I was working and how she only wished she could get clay as good; that I was lucky to have it right there on-hand. So I trusted her. As another pair of students were building a retaining wall and so digging up a lot of clay in process, I helped them by getting it out of their way and into another trash-bin. This material I screened by hand through quarter inch screens stapled to wooden frames in order to remove rocks and other debris. From there all I needed to do was keep it hydrated so that it would not turn rock-hard on me but retain a putty-like consistency.<gallery>
Image:NP45.jpg‎|fig. a: Screening clay; the idea is to get the small stuff through the screen...
Image:NP46.jpg‎|fig. b: ...while keeping out rocks, twigs, and other debris; these clay chunks could probably be broken down smaller and be OK.
</gallery>


=====Wheat Paste=====  
====Builders Sand====
Wheat Paste is a basic natural glue. I needed it to make a clay slip (more later) so since I would be using it already, decided to add it to my plasters in different ratios to see if it was useful as an amendment. I figured the plasters made of lime would cement up well and hypothesized that wheat paste glue might help the rawer formulas to compete. Wheat Paste is easily made. Start with high gluten organic (to keep extraneous chemicals that might react with other ingredients out of the mix) wheat flour, do not use whole wheat as it is low gluten and the gluten is the gluey part. Get three quarts of water boiling in a six quart pot. In another container mix the flour with cold water stirring until lumps are gone and the consistency of pancake batter is reached. Slowly add cold mix to boiling water stirring carefully and maintaining a boil, ( if you lose the boil just cook longer). You are done when the mix becomes translucent, don't expect it to be completely see-through, close is just right. Your glue will keep in the fridge over-night, but fresher is better, don't use older than day old wheat paste. (Guelberth, Rose & Chiras, 2003). (Note: Useful to glue all sorts of things, like using to poster walls- 'going wheat-pasting'). I bought my organic wheat flower from the local co-op.
Sand is a component of most plasters; on a molecular level it is crystalline in structure and interlocks like a 3-D jigsaw puzzle, providing mechanical strength <ref>'''Grafman, Lonny. (2009, Spring Semester). Engineering 305. Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA.''' This class provided much useful basic information for this project.</ref>. I could have used beach sand for this, but mixed grade builders sand is best because it has different size crystals to interlock; more uniform sized sand particles like I would find at a beach would create weaker bonds<ref>'''Danforth, Myles. (2009, Spring). (K. Scott Perry,Interviewer) Arcata, CA.''' Myles was knowledgeable and had plenty of helpful advice.</ref>. This might be okay for other projects, but as durability is one of my chief criteria, I wanted to use the most durable ingredients. Another problem with beach sand would be the difficulty of washing it, as natural salts would represent an unquantifiable (for my purposes) variable, possibly reacting in my plaster recipes. Factory sand represents a higher embedded energy cost, but allowed me to test these formulas at their strongest potential quality levels without an odd variable throwing off the results. A practical, non-experimental design might well opt for the lower embedded energy and financial cost, and added labor cost of washing local sand. My mixed grade builders sand was donated from ripped, so un-saleable, bags available at the local hardware store.


=== Formula ===
====Lime Putty====
[''Note: the section that follows details the experiments conducted and results analyzed in order to arrive at my final plaster and paint recipes. I do not believe this will be of interest to most builders.  Skip down to the section titled Conversion of Final Decision Recipes To 1gal Ratios.  Here are formulas to mix my best lime recipe, #2; my best manure plaster, #4.3; and my best earthen mix, #5.7. With these you can jump straight into buildingUnfortunately, unless you opt for our school pinkish stucco, you will have to experiment with coloring your own lime-washes (paint), my simple trial-and-error process is therefor described under Getting the Color RightFor step-by-step construction instructions, as well as project synopsis, please continue to web page two,'' [[http://www.appropedia.org/CCAT_Natural_Exterior_Wall_Plaster_and_Paint,_part_2]]''.'']  
Lime is a basic ingredient in earthen cements because it adds a binding quality to the mix; it is also known for high durability under adverse weather conditions <ref name="Guelberth"/>. Lime is available at hardware stores in the form of a powder. I used Type S Hydrated Lime. It is important to use builders lime and not agricultural lime; there are a variety of lime powders so be sure you know which one you get, as they all require different handling <ref name="Guelberth"/>. '''''Lime is caustic and will burn, vinegar is recommended to be kept on hand as a chemical counter-agent for first-aid''''' <ref>'''Mallinckrodt Baker, Inc. (2009, September 23). Material Safety Data Sheet, Calcium Oxide. (Environmental Health & Safety, Producer) Retrieved December 19, 2010, from [[http://www.jtbaker.com/msds/englishhtml/c0462.htm]].''' Technical specifications of lime from a chemical / industrial standpoint.</ref>. (Even with gloves and rubber coveralls I managed several chemical burns over the course of the project, thanks be to vinegar.) Lime Putty is produced by slaking (soaking) lime in water. For Type S Hydrated Lime it can be used within 1/2 hour of mixing, but all lime putties improve in quality with increased slaking time <ref name="Guelberth"/>. I was lucky enough to be able to slake my lime for a period of several months. I acquired it early in my spring semester and didn't start construction until the summer months. Keep in mind that the lime that went into the finished wall had slaked for several weeks longer than the test batch, so was that much improved.  [Recipe under Appendix I: Important Recipes.] Lime is processed by being burned in kilns. This in turn releases CO2 into the atmosphereHowever, as lime plasters, washes, etc., dry and begin curing, they react with moisture in the air, eventually pulling the same amount of CO2 back out of the air released during burning<ref>'''Lyons, Arthur. (2007). Materials for Architects and Builders (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA, USA: Butterworth Heineman.''' A University text designed for professional builders. Notable for its' background on lime, and chemistry equations for those interested.</ref>, and turning back into limestone around the other mix ingredients. So not counting transport, packaging, and the like, the lime itself is carbon neutral though curiously adding and removing CO2 to and from the atmosphere. My Type S Hydrated Lime was donated from ripped, so un-saleable, bags available at the local hardware store.


<u>'''Stress Test 1 Design'''</u>
====Manure====
Having researched some plaster formulas, and gathered and prepared my ingredients, it was time to make some test plasters and figure a way to administer stress tests. I devised two tests that I used in conjunction. The first test was to take a wire brush like used in construction, about an inch width of wire by five inches length mounted in about a foot long handle. My idea was to use a weight on the brush to scrub the plasters, letting the weight do the work of pushing down and trying to keep my muscle just maintaining a back and forth motion. The amount of weight wasn't in my mind important, just that it remain more or less constant. I taped a fist sized rock from the yard onto the back of the brush for weight, then after a few practice runs decided that thirty strokes front and back was an appropriate amount to damage the plasters while leaving enough behind to compare. I used strokes as long as I could across my test patches that averaged about six inches square.  
Manure is a traditional building material in many parts of the world<ref name="Guelberth"/>. It mixes well with earthen ingredients; retains vapor-permeability; contains natural enzymes which make it water-resistant, and also natural (undigested), fibers <ref name="Guelberth"/>, [see section on Straw for discussion of tensile strength]. I opted for horse manure, as there was a stable up the road which was happy to have me reduce their manure pile. My manure was therefore not fresh. I placed the manure in a 35 gallon container and added water to bring it back to a softer, more workable state. However, because it had been sitting around for some time there were issues with both mold and bugs. Gross as it sounds, to remedy this I first carefully picked through the manure, selecting only the least bug and mold ridden parts to keep. A previous class <ref>'''Engineering 114. (2006, Spring Semester). Humboldt State Univesity, Arcata, CA.''' This class provided a knowledge base that contributed to the project.</ref>, had taught me that the household natural cleanser Borax is used in earthen building as a mold inhibitor. I also knew of its usefulness in killing bugs as it works its way into their joints, destroying them. This might sound cruel to animal lovers, but a bug infested wall was not an option. I did not find clear indications of how much Borax to use, so I guesstimated, adding about ½ cup of Borax powder over about each foot of depth of manure in my bin. This was adequate for squelching the mold, but the bugs returned so I mixed in more Borax as I went in an ad hoc manner over the weeks of the project. Certainly the Borax was a small percentage of my manure, but I did not measure by weight or volume how much went in, so the more scientific minded should be aware of this loose variable in my formulas (some formulas contain it explicitly by volume).


<u>''' Stress Test 2 Design'''</u>
====Straw====
The second test was a water test. I decided to shoot my garden hose full blast, for my pipes not a lot of pressure actually, at the plasters where they were undamaged by the brush test. Again, the amount of water pressure wasn't deemed important for my purposes, just that it was uniform, so full blast it was. To contain the flow, or keep it aimed in full pressure against the plaster, I cut a garden hose size opening into a plastic single-serving yogurt cup like you'd get in any chain super market, then cut about a two inch slit in the edge that would touch the plaster to allow some pressure to escape out and away in a direction I would determine. This ad-hoc funnel I taped more or less water tight onto the end of the hose with duct tape. The idea was both for the blast to be concentrated where I aimed, but not allow an unquantifiable pressure build-up to be doing the work; I also thought that to allow moisture to escape outside the cone radius, weakening surrounding areas to a lesser extent, gave me a second test surface to note damage, all from the one test. Using a watch with a seconds hand I decided, after a little trial and error, that two five second blasts at the same spot, ten seconds apart, provided the just right amount of damage from which to make comparisons.  
Straw is used in earthen building to provide tensile strength; think of it as akin to metal re-bar in mainstream building<ref>'''Grafman, Lonny. (2009, Spring Semester). Engineering 305. Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA.'''</ref>. Straw allows the surfaces to bend and flex without coming apart; it spreads stresses, as opposed to letting stress fracture off a given section of plaster. I had straw bales on-hand at the site that I was welcomed to work from. Straw for plaster should be well dried with no mold, about 1-3 inches in length <ref name="Guelberth"/>. One recommended method to cut the straw to the right length was to put it in a trash bin and use a Weedwacker on it <ref>'''Danforth, Myles. (2009, Spring). (K. Scott Perry,Interviewer) Arcata, CA.'''</ref>. I couldn't find anybody to loan me their Weedwacker, but this was probably for the best since such an approach would likely constitute abuse-of-power-tools, destroying the Weedwacker (which would require a replacement), and thus not be an appropriate use of technology. Instead, I got a wheel-barrel full of straw at a time and cut it down with scissors using gloves (the stuff is tougher on the hands than you might guess). Cutting straw became a welcome break during the project; I recommend not preparing it all at once, so you have an easier task to change gears as you work. With more bodies it might not matter, but working by myself, it was a welcome relaxer. One inch straw is recommended for top coats of plaster; first (Key or Scratch) coats should have longer straw to give later coats material to grip to<ref name="Goodshield"/>. Before I applied my finish coat of plaster I actually took scissors and trimmed the wall to ensure longer pieces would not stick out after the finish coat went on.


Finally, I allowed the water test to dry out over night, under heat lights and fans. Now I repeated the water test, only this time blasting about a third of the way up into brush strokes creating areas in the brush line that got full-blasted by water, others just moistened by proximity, and others not wet at all on the far end; these to compare against the first water test on undamaged plaster, and areas not abused at all except through proximity to the other tests.  
====Clay====
[[Image:NP45.jpg‎|thumb|left|fig. a: Screening clay; the idea is to get the small stuff through the screen...]]In addition to sand and straw, clay is a basic component of bricks and plasters, an alternative to lime, acting as the binder that holds the other elements together<ref name="Guelberth"/>. Although I'm focusing on lime and manure, I wanted to try a variety of raw earthen mixes to see if they had comparable durability; if they did, clay mixes certainly would have lower embedded energy costs than the lime, and lower than manure anywhere ruminant animals are not common.  Clay is available for sale through potter’s suppliers and elsewhere, but can also be dug right out of the ground. However, high silt ratios in ground clay are bad for [[Image:NP46.jpg‎|thumb|right|fig. b: ...while keeping out rocks, twigs, and other debris; these clay chunks could probably be broken down smaller and be OK.]]
building<ref name="Guelberth"/>. There are several easy tests to determine clay suitability, the easiest being to roll it between your fingers to make a clay 'worm'. If the worm holds its shape, the silt content is low enough to make a decent building clay<ref>'''Grafman, Lonny. (2009, Spring Semester). Engineering 305. Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA.'''</ref>. A more precise field test is available on Myles' Appropedia page <ref>'''Danforth, M. (2009). CCAT natural wall construction. Retrieved December 19, 2010, from Appropedia: (http://www.appropedia.org/CCAT_natural_wall_construction).''' The Appropedia page documenting how Myles built the wall I would plaster and paint.</ref>. I brought my resident expert, Ms. Goodshield, out to review my materials before I began. She eloquently waxed about how wonderful the quality of the clay was at the CCAT grounds where I was working, how she only wished she could get clay as good, and that I was lucky to have it right there on-hand. So I trusted her. As another pair of students were building a retaining wall and digging up a lot of clay in process, I helped them by getting it out of their way and into a trash bin. I screened this material by hand through quarter inch screens stapled to wooden frames in order to remove rocks and other debris. From there, all I needed to do was keep it hydrated so that it would retain a putty-like consistency and not turn rock-hard.


All the plasters had been allowed to dry for about a week onto particle board that had been prepared with a clay slip as an adhesion coat, what in normal house painting I'd call a primer. So here I include the recipe for Clay Slip, (thanks to Ms. Goodshield). [[Image:Kivagreenhouse1_(58).jpg‎|thumb|left|There are many ways to mix natural plasters.]]
====Wheat Paste====
Wheat-paste is a basic natural glue<ref name="Guelberth"/>. It was needed to make a clay slip,<ref name="Goodshield"/>. [Recipe under Appendix I: Important Recipes.] Since I would be using wheat paste already, I decided to add it to my plasters in different ratios to see if it was useful as an amendment. I figured the plasters made of lime would cement up well, and hypothesized that wheat paste glue might help the more raw formulas compete. Wheat paste is easily made. [Recipe under Appendix I: Important Recipes.] Use high gluten organic (to keep out extraneous chemicals that might react with other ingredients) wheat flour; do not use whole wheat because it is low in gluten, and the gluten is the gluey part <ref name="Goodshield"/>. I bought my organic wheat flower from the local co-op.  Wheat-paste will keep in the fridge over-night, but the fresher, the better, one shouldn’t use more than day-old wheat paste<ref name="Guelberth"/>. (Note: Wheat glue can be used for all sorts of things, such as to poster walls- “going wheat-pasting”).


[<u>'''Recipe for Clay Slip (Adhesion Coat)'''</u>: Starting with previously screened clay, mix with water until thickness of heavy-cream is achieved, mix in 1/2 cup wheat paste to five gallons slip, I erred a tablespoon or so heavy here. Slip paints on and can even be sprayed with the proper tools, I used a cheap 3 inch brush.]
===Finding Plaster and Color Recipes===
[[Image:Clay Slip Drilling.jpg|thumb|Mixing clay slip with a drill attachment; my drill motor gave out due to the high torque involved so i did most of my mixing literally by hand, squeezing and kneading.]] 
====Stress Test 1 Design====
Having researched some plaster formulas and gathered and prepared my ingredients, it was time to make some test plasters and determine how to administer stress tests <ref>'''Grafman, Lonny. (2009, Spring Semester). Engineering 305. Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA.'''</ref>. I devised two tests that I used in conjunction. The first test was done with a wire brush like used in construction, about 1 inch wide by 5 inches long and mounted on a 1ft  long handle. I used a weight on the brush to scrub the plasters, letting the weight do the work of pushing down, and trying to use my muscles just to maintain a back and forth motion. I didn’t consider the amount of weight important, just that it remain relatively constant. I taped a fist sized rock from the yard onto the back of the brush for weight, then after a few practice runs decided that thirty strokes front and back was an appropriate amount to damage the plasters while leaving enough behind to compare. I used as long as possible strokes across my test patches; they averaged about six inches square.


I applied these tests (brush, hose, hose on brush mark) twice before I selected the plasters I would use. The first round was a 'discovery' round in which I used five basic plaster mixes. Then learning what I could, I made 26 variations of my best recipes from the 'discovery' round. Out of this 'decision' round of 26 plasters tested, I selected the two best to try on the wall.
====Stress Test 2 Design====
 
The second test was a two part water test. I decided to shoot my garden hose full blast (not a lot of pressure actually) at the plasters where they were undamaged by the brush test. Again, the amount of water pressure wasn't important for my purposes, just that it was uniform, so full blast it was. To contain the flow and keep it aimed in full pressure against the plaster, I cut a garden hose size opening into a plastic single-serving yogurt cup, then cut about a two inch slit in the edge that would touch the plaster to allow some pressure to escape. I taped this ad hoc funnel more or less water tight onto the end of the hose with duct tape. The idea was for the blast to be concentrated where I aimed, but not allow an unquantifiable pressure build-up; I also thought that to allow moisture to escape outside the cone radius, weakening surrounding areas to a lesser extent, gave me a second surface on which to note damage, all from one test. I decided, after a little trial and error, that using a watch with a seconds hand to time two five-second blasts at the same spot, ten seconds apart, provided just the right amount of damage from which to make comparisons.  
<u>'''Discovery Test: Recipes, Results, &amp; Conclusions'''</u>
 
<u>'''Discovery Recipes'''</u>:
 
[When I use a Pinch as a measurement, I mean a two-finger and thumb dollop, probably about a heaping tablespoon. I describe straw amounts' roughly for the reason that straw doesn't fill out a volume like my other ingredients, does one pack it in the measuring cup or place it loose, unscientific as it is I opted for a loose packed somewhere between the extremes; by weight would have been more precise but I didn't feel like a job site was a good place for a precision scale.]
'''1.''' Light Lime Plaster: 1 cup lime putty, 2 cups sand, 1 pinch wheat paste, 1 pinch clay, add straw to 1/2 volume of mix, add water after straw to regain wet plaster consistency.


'''2.''' Lime Plaster: follow recipe 1 but add no wheat paste or clay.
Finally, I allowed the water test to dry out over night, under heat lights and fans. Now I repeated the water test, only this time blasting about a third of the way up into brush strokes creating areas in the brush line that got full-blasted by water, others just moistened by proximity, and others not wet at all on the far end; these to compare against the first water test on undamaged plaster, and areas not abused at all except through proximity to the other tests, effectively five different areas per plaster to compare.
'''3.''' Manure Plaster: 1 cup clay, 1 cup sand, 1 cup manure, 1 pinch wheat paste.
   
   
'''4.''' Light Manure Plaster: 1 cup clay, 1 cup sand, 1/2 cup manure, roughly 1/2 cup straw, 1 pinch wheat-paste.
====Preparation for Experiments====
 
All the plasters had dried for about a week onto particle board, which had been prepared with a clay slip as an adhesion coat<ref name="Guelberth"/>. (See Appendix I: Important Recipes for slip recipe.) Slip can be painted or sprayed on with the proper tools; I used a cheap 3 inch brush to paint the slip onto the particle board. After the slip dried I then mixed small of amounts of plaster [See Appendix II: Experiments, for experimental plaster recipes.] and applied them to the particle board by hand [see discussion of Hurling: page 2 under Construction], allowing them to dry for several days.
'''5.''' Earth-Lime Plaster: 1 cup clay, 1 cup sand, 1 cup lime putty, roughly 1 cup straw.  
 
<u>''''Discovery' Test Results'''</u>


'''Hypothesis''': I expect recipe # 2- Lime Plaster, to perform best, and # 5- Earth-Lime, worst.
====Experiments====
 
I conducted two rounds of both stress tests described above. The first round was a Discovery round in which I tested five basic plaster mixes. The idea was to gain a hands on feel for the materials strengths and weakness, from which I could form hypothesis to improve the plasters. Educated by the results, I made 26 variations of my best recipes, applied these to more slipped particle board, allowing them too to dry for several days. I then tested these 26 plaster mixes. From the results of this Decision round, I selected the two best recipes for the experimental wall. (See Appendix II: Experiments, for experimental Recipes, Hypothesis, Test Results, Analysis, Conclusions, etc.)
'''Results After Brush Test''': least damaged to worst- Lime*, Light Lime, Light Manure, Earth-Lime, Manure
 
'''Analysis''':
   
   
-The Lime Plaster was barely damaged at all (too good?) inspiring a retest, *still undamaged after retest.
-The Light Lime beat all but the Lime Plaster itself.
-The Manure Plaster was cut through like butter, useless.
-The Earth-Lime almost tied for third place with the Light Manure, defying my hypothesis, food for thought.
'''Results After 1st Water Test (undamaged area)''': least damaged to worst- Lime, Light Lime, Light Manure &amp; Earth-Lime tied, Manure
'''Analysis''':


-Lime Plaster was clearly undamaged after both tests.
====Getting the Color Right====
Part of the requirements for this project was to match the wall color to the school stucco color, a beigish pink.  This I probably had the least success with, though as close as I got it really wasn't bad at all.  To start it is necessary to first make a lime-wash. (Recipe under Appendix I: Important Recipes.


-Light Lime had moderate damage, mostly by brush not water.
The first run through I missed the pink tone. I used combination of yellow iron oxide, yellow ochre, and burnt umber mineral pigments mixed in quantities of 1/8 cup with between 1-4 cups of lime-wash.  This created various beige tones, that when allowed to dry and compared against nearby columns revealed my need to move in a pink direction.  That failed first batch consisted of eleven different samples.  However, I did learn enough to try more precise ratios the next go, my mixes at one cup lime-wash were obviously too dark, as well as too beige.
[[Image:NP84.jpg|thumb|The pigments are powdered minerals, mix them completely into water before adding to paint recipes to avoid ugly color clumping.]]


-Light Manure's outer rim held up to brush &amp; spray, center point of spray 100% damaged clear through.
The second batch consisted of 15 samples- 3 came close.  The first of the three consisted of 3 cups lime-wash, 1/8 cup yellow iron oxide and 1/8 cup red iron oxide.  This recipe was a little too dark.  The next two were very close in tone and I could have opted for either.  Mix two was 2 cups lime-wash, 1/8 cup yellow iron oxide, and 1 tablespoon red iron oxide.  The third mix was 2 cups lime-wash, 1/8 cup yellow ochre and 1 tablespoon red iron oxide.  I chose this last mix because yellow ochre was cheaper than yellow iron oxide. I call it School Stucco Pink. [converted to 1 gallon, Recipe under Appendix I: Important Recipes.]


-Earth-lime's outer rim damaged clear through by brush, center held up well to both.  
During the color test phase I was advised and given pigments by the professors of the campus ceramics lab, to whom I offer my gratitude.  When I actually readied to make my lime-wash for the color coat, I bought pigment from the local ceramics supplier.


-Light Manure vs Earth-Lime: Light Manure good to friction but horrible to water pressure, whereas Earth-Lime prone to friction damage on edges but good otherwise.
(Note: since I’ve been back, maintenance has now painted the columns near CCAT to the much more beige tone I’d originally gone for.  I’m guessing now that my first color attempts were based on stucco closer to the ceramics shop, which colors I revised to pink when I saw the column color nearer CCAT.  Maintenance have now apparently carried the more beige scheme over to the CCAT end of Campus leaving my poor wall behind and now noticeably pink.)


-Manure heavily damaged but mostly by brush, held up well to water, (demonstrating, I believe, the water-proofing qualities of the enzymes in the manure, when, compared to Light Manure, there is enough to get the effect).
==References==
Thanks to Pennelys Goodshield of [http://sustainablenations.org/ Sustainable Nations] for invaluable training and advice, as well as to, Myles Danforth and Lonny Grafman.  


'''Results After 2nd Water Test (aimed at brush damage)''': least damaged to worst- Lime, Light Lime, Earth-Lime, Light Manure, Manure
<references/>


'''Analysis''':
-Here the Earth-Lime clearly edged out either manure mix.
-Recipe #2, the heaviest lime mix came out the best per my hypothesis.
   
   
'''Overall Analysis''':
''Also see [[CCAT Natural Exterior Wall Plaster and Paint, part 2]]; or skip to [[CCAT Natural Exterior Wall Plaster and Paint, Appendix]].''
Point 1- The lime made an excellent plaster, more the merrier.
 
Point 2- The fiber content of just manure doesn't seem enough for a stable plaster; the straw clearly made the difference in Light Manure over Manure Plaster, and showed strong anti-abrasive qualities in the brush test for plasters Light Lime, Light Manure, &amp; Earth-Lime.  Therefor I will make no more manure plasters with no straw added.
Point 3- The only recipe without wheat-paste was the best.
 
'''Revised Hypothesis''':
 
'''H1'''- Per point 1, if I make a revised Earth-Lime recipe 5.1 without lime, it will fail.
 
'''H2'''- Per point 1, a revised Light Manure recipe with lime added might allow it to compete with the Earth-Lime, or even get it back into comparable range of the lime plasters.
'''H3'''- Per point 3, any recipe might improve with lime used instead of wheat-paste as a glue/cement.
 
<u>''''Decision' tests: Thoughts, Revised Recipes, Results, Analysis, Conclusion'''</u>
 
'''Thoughts from Discovery Tests''': The raw Lime Plaster, #2, clearly won, the decision round should try to find a manure or earth-lime plaster mix that will come close with lower embedded energy costs. The Lime Plaster should be altered in ratio to find a best mix. The Earth-Lime should be altered in ratio to find a best mix. Won't give up on manure, but add lime to variations of recipe 4, Light Manure Plaster, to attempt to find a mix that beats out the earth-lime mix. For the manure recipes, my gut tells me to throw in some borax as an anti-mold/fungal/insect amendment, but that this won't be necessary in the recipes with lime.
 
<u>'''Revised Lime Plaster Recipes'''</u>:
'''2. '''3/4 cup lime putty, 2 1/4 cup sand, 1/2 volume straw, H2O to hydrate to wet plaster consistency; '''2.1 '''(add clay, reduce lime) 1/2 cup lime putty, 1/4 cup clay, 2 1/4 cup sand, 1/2 volume straw, H2O to hydrate; '''2.2''' (add manure, reduce lime) 1/2 cup lime putty, 1/4 cup manure, 2 1/4 cup sand, 1/2 volume straw, H2O to hydrate; '''2.3''' (add wheat-paste) recipe 2, add 1/8 cup wheat-paste; '''2.4''' (increase straw) recipe 2 but instead of 1/2 straw by volume add 3/4 straw by volume; '''2.5 '''(reduce straw) recipe 2 but instead of 1/2 straw by volume add only 1/4 straw by volume; '''2.6''' (increase sand) 3/4 cup lime putty, 2 1/2 cup sand, 1/2 volume straw, H2O to hydrate; '''2.7''' (reduce sand) 3/4 cup lime putty, 2 cup sand, 1/2 volume straw, H20 to hydrate; '''2.8 '''(increase straw and sand, add wheat-paste) 3/4 cup lime putty, 2 1/2 cup sand, 1/8 cup wheat-paste, 3/4 volume straw, H20 to hydrate; '''2.9''' (reduce straw and sand) 3/4 cup lime putty, 2 cup sand, 1/4 volume straw, H20 to hydrate.
 
<u>''''Decision' Test Results for Lime Plasters'''</u>
 
'''Results After Brush Test''': Least Damaged to Worst- 2; 2.9; 2.5; 2.7; 2.8; 2.1 &amp; 2.6 tied; 2.3 &amp; 2.4 tied: 2.2.
 
'''Results After 1st Water Test''': All undamaged (!), except 2.1 &amp; 2.6 are barely damaged, 2.2 significantly damaged in corner that wasn't blasted, got wet though where a crack appeared when the plaster first dried out, this corner broke off.
 
'''Analysis''': 2.2 was worst in both tests so will eliminate from second round of water tests, 2.1 and 2.6 also eliminated because tied at 3rd worst in brush test and 2nd worst in first water test.
 
'''Results After 2nd Water Test''': 2 is still barely damaged at all, followed by 2.5 then 2.9 as close second and third.
 
'''Analysis''': 2.5 and 2.9 both have more lime than 2 so represent a higher embedded energy cost, I would think not to use them, going for 2 the best overall, however, 2.9 was second place after the brush test, and it came out smoother on the surface so I might use this recipe as inspiration for a finish/top coat.
 
<u>'''Revised Manure Plaster Recipes'''</u>:
'''4.''' 3/4 cup clay, 3/4 cup sand, 3/8 cup manure, roughly 3/8 cup straw, 1 pinch wheat-paste, 1 pinch borax; '''4.1''' (add lime, remove borax) 3/8 cup clay, 1/4 cup manure, 3/8 cup lime putty, roughly 3/8 cup straw, 3/4 cup sand, 1 pinch wheat-paste; '''4.2''' (add lime, remove wheat-paste &amp; borax) [checks hypothesis 3] follow recipe 4.1, but do not add wheat-paste; '''4.3 '''(increase manure to clay, add lime, remove borax) 3/8 cup clay, 3/8 cup manure, 3/8 cup lime putty, roughly 3/8 cup straw, 3/4 cup sand, 1 pinch wheat-paste; '''4.4''' (increase sand &amp; straw, add lime, remove borax) [this recipe adds dry material and is tested as a possible Scratch/Key (1st) coat] 3/8 cup clay, 1/4 cup manure, 3/8 cup lime putty, roughly 1/2 cup straw, 7/8 cup sand, 1 pinch wheat-paste; '''4.5''' (increase straw &amp; manure, add lime, no borax) [adds 1/8 cup dry material, another possible Scratch coat] 3/8 cup clay, 3/8 cup manure, 3/8 cup lime putty, roughly 3/4 cup sand, 1 pinch wheat-paste; '''4.6''' (increase sand, straw &amp; manure) 3/8 cup clay, 3/8 cup manure, 3/8 cup lime putty, 7/8 cup sand, roughly 1/2 cup straw, 1 pinch wheat-paste [another possible Scratch coat].
 
<u>''''Decision' Test Results for Manure Plasters'''</u>
 
'''Results After Brush Test''': Least Damaged to Worst- 4.5; 4.3; 4.4; 4.6; 4.1; 4.2; 4
 
'''Results After 1st Water Test''': 4.1; 4,3; 4.4; 4.5 all undamaged by water, 4.6 slightly damaged followed closely by 4.2, 4 very damaged.
 
'''Analysis''': 4 came out worse in both tests so it was easy to eliminate, because it contained no lime it well supports Hypothesis 2. 4.2 &amp; 4.6 were the only others to show damage from the water, as well as fall below the bottom half on the brush test so these too were eliminated from round 2 of the water test.
 
'''Results After 2nd Water Test''': 4.5 was badly damaged so is easily eliminated, 4.4, 4.5, &amp; 4.6 showed minor damage whereas 4.3 remained the only undamaged manure plaster and with its' second place in the brush tests shows itself to be the best overall manure plaster.
 
'''Analysis''': The possible scratch coats did not perform well enough to warrant use.
 
<u>'''Revised Earth-lime Plaster Recipes'''</u>:
 
'''5.''' 3/4 cup clay, 3/4 cup sand, 3/4 cup lime putty, roughly 3/4 cup straw, 1 pinch wheat-paste; '''5*''' (no lime to check hypothesis 1) 1 cup clay, 3/4 cup sand, roughly 3/4 cup straw, 1/2 cup wheat-paste, 1/8 cup borax; '''5.1''' (no wheat-paste, check hypothesis 3) follow recipe 5 but add no wheat-paste; '''5.2''' (increase clay to lime ratio) 7/8 cup clay, 3/4 cup sand, 5/8 cup lime putty, roughly 3/4 cup straw, 1 pinch wheat-paste;'''5.3''' (increase lime to clay ratio) 5/8 cup clay, 3/4 cup sand, 7/8 cup lime putty, roughly 3/4 cup straw, 1 pinch wheat-paste; '''5.4''' (clay-manure instead of clay) 3/8 cup clay, 3/8 cup manure, 3/4 cup lime putty, 3/4 cup sand, roughly 3/4 cup straw, 1 pinch wheat-paste; '''5.5''' (clay, manure &amp; lime in even proportions) 1/2 cup clay, 1/2 cup manure, 1/2 cup lime putty, 3/4 cup sand, roughly 3/4 cup straw, 1 pinch wheat-paste; '''5.6''' (increase straw) 3/4 cup clay, 3/4 cup sand, 3/4 cup lime putty, roughly 1 cup straw, 1 pinch wheat-paste; '''5.7 '''(increase sand) 3/4 cup clay, 3/4 cup lime putty, 1 1/4 cup sand, roughly 3/4 cup straw, 1 pinch wheat-paste.
 
<u>''''Decision' Test Results for Earthlime Plasters'''</u>
 
'''Results After Brush Test''': Least Damaged to Worst- 5.7; 5.1; 5.2; 5 &amp; 5.4 tied; 5.6; 5.8; 5.3; 5.5; 5*
 
'''Analysis''': 5* broke apart completely so strongly supports hypothesis 1; 5.1 in second place lends credible support to hypothesis 3.
 
'''Results After 1st Water Test''': 5* is significantly damaged, 5.2 &amp; 5.8 show slight damage, all others undamaged.
 
'''Analysis''': 5* is worse on both tests so hypothesis 1 is still strongly supported and 5* will be eliminated from the 2nd round. 5.8 also warrants elimination as it tied for 2nd worst on the water test and came in the bottom third with the brush. 5.1 is doing well, still supporting hypothesis 3.
 
'''Results After 2nd Water Test''': All remain fairly undamaged.
 
'''Analysis''': 5.7, as clear winner in the brush test wins this tight round.
 
<u>'''Overall 'Decision' Test Results'''</u>:
 
Mix # 2, the rawest lime recipe came out best overall. 4.3 and 5.7 took their respective categories but are too close in final appearance to call a winner. Further testing was warranted so I tried at first just scratching the still wet surfaces with my fingernail- inconclusive. So I decided to try the wire brush again over the now wet previous brush marks, after 10 strokes no difference, after 15 4.3 went all the way through, after 19 5.7 went through, after 20 strokes 4.3 looked worse than 5.7. So my decision came down to 5.7 being best in the tests, but 4.3 using only half as much lime for a much lower embedded energy cost. I chose 4.3 for the wall, I felt the difference was slight enough that I could trade durability, my top criteria, for lower embedded energy. I figured my tests, while relevant and revealing, were not after all really what Arcata weather would throw at the wall, and there was a chance that things would come out very differently under real conditions; this thought justified to me making a go with the lower energy alternative: the 4.3 manure mix.
 
 
 
====<u>'''Getting the Color Right'''</u>:====
 
Part of the requirements for this project was to match the wall color to the school stucco color, a beigish pink. &nbsp;This I probably had the least success with, though as close as I got it really wasn't bad at all. &nbsp;To start it is necessary to first '''make a lime-wash'''. &nbsp;This is done by mixing 2 parts lime putty to 1 1/2 parts water. &nbsp;Mix this well, it should be about as thick as whole milk. &nbsp;Pigments must be first added to water, then mixed into the lime-wash. &nbsp;Be sure to mix the pigment fully into the water to avoid clumping of pigment in the wash, (HSU Ceramics dept.). &nbsp;After all are mixed it is wise to run all through a strainer like available through a paint store, I found that cheesecloth worked well enough. &nbsp;<br>
 
<br>
 
My first run through I missed the pink tone and used combinations of yellow iron oxide, yellow ochre, and burnt umber mineral pigments mixed in quantities of 1/8 cup with 1-4 cups lime-wash. &nbsp;This created various beige tones, that when allowed to dry and compared against nearby columns revealed my need to move in a pink direction. &nbsp;That failed first batch consisted of eleven different samples. &nbsp;However, I did learn enough to try more precise ratios the next go, my mixes at one cup lime-wash were obviously too dark.[[Image:NP84.jpg|thumb|The pigments are powdered minerals, mix them completely into water before adding to paint recipes to avoid ugly color clumping.]]  
 
<br>
 
The second batch consisted of 15 samples- 3 came close. &nbsp;The first of the three consisted of 3 cups lime-wash, 1/8 cup yellow iron oxide and 1/8 cup red iron oxide. &nbsp;This recipe was a little too dark. &nbsp;The next two were very close in tone and I could have opted for either. &nbsp;Mix two was 2 cups lime-wash, 1/8 cup yellow iron oxide, and 1 tablespoon red iron oxide. &nbsp;The third mix was 2 cups lime-wash, 1/8 cup yellow ochre and 1 tablespoon red iron oxide. &nbsp;I chose this last mix because yellow ochre was cheaper than yellow iron oxide. &nbsp;'''Converted to gallon ratio the color mix I settled on was 1 gallon lime-wash, 1 cup yellow ochre, 1/2 cup red iron oxide'''.
 
<br>
 
During my test phase I was advised and given pigments by the professors of the campus ceramics lab, to whom I offer my gratitude. &nbsp; When I actually readied to make my lime-wash for the color coat, I bought pigment from the local ceramics supplier.
 
 
====<u>'''Conversion of Final Decision Recipes to 1 gallon ratios'''</u>====
 
'''''Recipe for plaster # 2, the Lime Plaster finalist'''''<i>@ 1 gal:</i>
 
3/4 cup lime putty x 16 cups (1 gal) = 48/4 =              12 cups lime putty
 
 
2 1/4 cups sand = 9/4 cups x 16 = 144/4 =                  36 cups sand
 
 
1/2 volume straw
 
 
H2O to hydrate to plaster consistency
 
<br> '''''Recipe for plaster # 4.3, the Manure Plaster finalist'''''<i>@ 1 gal</i>:
 
3/8 cup clay x 16 = 48/8 =                                  6 cups clay
 
<br>
 
3/8 cup manure becomes                                      6 cups manure
 
<br>
 
3/8 cup lime putty becomes                                  6 cups lime-putty
 
<br>
 
3/8 cups straw becomes                                      6 cups straw
 
<br>
 
3/4 cup sand x 16 = 48/4 =                                12 cups sand
 
<br>
 
1/8 cup wheat-paste x 16 = 16/8 =                          2 cups wheat paste
 
 
H2O to hydrate to plaster consistency
 
<br>
 
....and finally the plaster I will not use, but tested well so you might, '''''recipe for plaster 5.7, the Earth-Lime finalist'''''<i>@ 1 gal: &nbsp;</i>
 
3/4 cup clay becomes                                      12 cups clay                                 
                                 
<br>
 
3/4 cup lime putty becomes                                12 cups lime-putty
 
<br>
 
1 1/4 cups sand = 5/4 cups x 16 = 80/4 =                  20 cups sand
 
<br>
 
3/4 cup straw becomes                                      12 cups straw
 
<br>
 
1/8 cup wheat-paste becomes                                2 cups wheat-paste
 
 
H20 to hydrate to plaster consistency
 
 
== <br> ==


Continue to page 2: [[http://www.appropedia.org/CCAT_Natural_Exterior_Wall_Plaster_and_Paint,_part_2]]


[[Category:CCAT|E]]
[[Category:CCAT|N]]
[[Category:Natural paint|N]]
[[Category:CCAT Building|N]]

Revision as of 03:20, 6 March 2018

fig. a: The front of the finished wall; note the organically shaped reveal window allowing a view of substrate materials.

Also see CCAT Natural Exterior Wall Plaster and Paint, part 2; or skip to CCAT Natural Exterior Wall Plaster and Paint, Appendix.

Abstract

This project was a test of natural plasters, finished with a protective lime-wash coat of natural paint, for outdoor application. The client was Campus Center for Appropriate Technology (CCAT), who was expected to fund the materials, as well as provide the test surface of a wood frame wall. The wall was constructed of two different 4' by 4' natural surfaces: one in-filled with paper-crete bricks mortared together with paper-crete slurry, and one stick framed with wood lath and holding infill of cob (also known as wattle & daub). Both sections were constructed by Myles Danforth as his class project and were in the test phase. Following research, work on the plastering and finishing half of the project took place in three phases.

  1. Test a variety of natural plaster and pigment formulations.
  2. Based on the plaster results from Phase 1, select and apply two plasters for each section of the test wall, resulting in four final test sections.
  3. Based on the pigment results from Phase 1, paint the plastered surface with a natural paint to match to the nearby official HSU signage columns.

In preparation for this project, I took workshops in Natural Plastering and Painting under Pennelys Goodshield of Sustainable Nations, and conducted book and online research. I conducted this project over the summer of 2009. With the exception of some assistance from classmates, the labor input was all my own. I would not endorse approaching such a project alone, as it was a very labor intensive. The finished product, however, achieved the goals set forth.

fig. b: The back of the finished wall.

Introduction

Taking up the second part of the experiment, I researched and tested different appropriate-tech plasters with which I finished Myles' wall. After research and testing of a number of plaster formulas, I settled on two to apply to the wall so that weathering and stability could be compared over time. A clay-slip is usually applied as a binder between the wall itself and later plaster[1]; thus, the application of a clay-slip was my first step in actual construction. As we jumped through the bureaucratic hoops of campus building codes, we learned from the Building and Maintenance department that any permanent structure we built (including the experimental wall) needed to match the approved campus color scheme; as a result, part of the definition of 'appropriate' for my end of the project was to get the color right, which was purely a bureaucratic necessity but a necessity nonetheless. As it soon came to my attention that natural pigments stretched much farther in paints than in plasters, devising an appropriate natural paint was added to my to-do list; it is much more appropriate from a financial standpoint and a resource conservation standpoint to use less pigment, (usually mined minerals). In tune with CCAT's educational mission, Myles requested that a window be built into the plaster so that the paper-crete and wattle & daub would remain visible to future students and builders. My end of the project was thus broken into multiple tasks:

  1. Materials research
  2. Materials acquisition
  3. Experimentation with plaster recipes
  4. Experimentation with paint pigments
  5. Designing (with Myles' advisement) and installing the window section
  6. Applying the clay slip
  7. Applying four strips of experimental plaster (one strip of each of my two final plasters over each of Myles' two wall materials)
  8. Applying lime-wash color coat.
  9. Curing the lime.

I considered trying different paints as well, but this seemed to put too many layers of variables into the experiment. Instead, I decided on a single paint formulation during the research phase; the only experiment in the paint coat was how well I could match the school column color as per the Building and Maintenance department requirement.

Project Requirements

As opposed to mainstream construction and technological applications that are more often of a one-size-fits-all approach, the Appropriate Technology approach requires carefully thinking through your goals to find a best balance for the given circumstance. The immediate goal of this project was to design and apply

A shot of the wall after Myles finished building it; it has a gravel bed, brick foundation, post frame, and shingle roof. The left gray half is the paper-crete brick and mortar, the beige right is the cob filled wattle & daub.

materials that the good folks at CCAT would observe over the course of the following year; the long term objective being to build an entire structure using the best materials as determined by the results from this experimental wall. Since the project is for CCAT, features of Appropriate Technologies like LOCAL, NATURAL, or RECYCLED MATERIALS, COST-EFFECTIVENESS, REPEATABILITY BY NON-EXPERT BUILDERS, and WORK DURATION, were important. However, because the intention is to eventually make permanent structure(s) based on this experiment, I ranked DURABILITY (tempered by these others) as the biggest priority. Since the HSU Building and Maintenance department requires permanent structures to match approved color schemes, this bureaucratic requirement of MATCHING THE APPROVED COLOR SCHEME was also central in determining the success of this project. Finally, as a painter by trade, I consider AESTHETICS to have a high value for structures of all types.

Design

Materials

The first task was materials preparation. Research informed me that traditional technologies for water-resistant earthen plasters are lime (the mineral) and manure [2]; another choice might have been using a natural oil such as linseed oil as an additive (here termed amendment)[2], but oils block water more completely, whereas Myles' wall materials of paper-crete and wattle & daub are often used for their vapor-permeability [3]. Vapor-permeable surfaces are considered advantageous in natural building because they allow interior and exterior humidity levels to attain equilibrium by first absorbing in, then wicking away excess moisture, not allowing it to build up within [2]. Using an oil amended plaster would eliminate this vapor-permeable quality of the wall materials, so it made sense to use the vapor-permeable, yet humidity durable, lime and manure plasters. I found a variety of formulas for mixing plaster using these key ingredients. Additional ingredients included builder's sand, lime-putty, manure, straw, clay and wheat-paste. A brief discussion of each: qualities, how I prepared them for use, where I got them, etc., follows.

Builders Sand

Sand is a component of most plasters; on a molecular level it is crystalline in structure and interlocks like a 3-D jigsaw puzzle, providing mechanical strength [4]. I could have used beach sand for this, but mixed grade builders sand is best because it has different size crystals to interlock; more uniform sized sand particles like I would find at a beach would create weaker bonds[5]. This might be okay for other projects, but as durability is one of my chief criteria, I wanted to use the most durable ingredients. Another problem with beach sand would be the difficulty of washing it, as natural salts would represent an unquantifiable (for my purposes) variable, possibly reacting in my plaster recipes. Factory sand represents a higher embedded energy cost, but allowed me to test these formulas at their strongest potential quality levels without an odd variable throwing off the results. A practical, non-experimental design might well opt for the lower embedded energy and financial cost, and added labor cost of washing local sand. My mixed grade builders sand was donated from ripped, so un-saleable, bags available at the local hardware store.

Lime Putty

Lime is a basic ingredient in earthen cements because it adds a binding quality to the mix; it is also known for high durability under adverse weather conditions [2]. Lime is available at hardware stores in the form of a powder. I used Type S Hydrated Lime. It is important to use builders lime and not agricultural lime; there are a variety of lime powders so be sure you know which one you get, as they all require different handling [2]. Lime is caustic and will burn, vinegar is recommended to be kept on hand as a chemical counter-agent for first-aid [6]. (Even with gloves and rubber coveralls I managed several chemical burns over the course of the project, thanks be to vinegar.) Lime Putty is produced by slaking (soaking) lime in water. For Type S Hydrated Lime it can be used within 1/2 hour of mixing, but all lime putties improve in quality with increased slaking time [2]. I was lucky enough to be able to slake my lime for a period of several months. I acquired it early in my spring semester and didn't start construction until the summer months. Keep in mind that the lime that went into the finished wall had slaked for several weeks longer than the test batch, so was that much improved. [Recipe under Appendix I: Important Recipes.] Lime is processed by being burned in kilns. This in turn releases CO2 into the atmosphere. However, as lime plasters, washes, etc., dry and begin curing, they react with moisture in the air, eventually pulling the same amount of CO2 back out of the air released during burning[7], and turning back into limestone around the other mix ingredients. So not counting transport, packaging, and the like, the lime itself is carbon neutral though curiously adding and removing CO2 to and from the atmosphere. My Type S Hydrated Lime was donated from ripped, so un-saleable, bags available at the local hardware store.

Manure

Manure is a traditional building material in many parts of the world[2]. It mixes well with earthen ingredients; retains vapor-permeability; contains natural enzymes which make it water-resistant, and also natural (undigested), fibers [2], [see section on Straw for discussion of tensile strength]. I opted for horse manure, as there was a stable up the road which was happy to have me reduce their manure pile. My manure was therefore not fresh. I placed the manure in a 35 gallon container and added water to bring it back to a softer, more workable state. However, because it had been sitting around for some time there were issues with both mold and bugs. Gross as it sounds, to remedy this I first carefully picked through the manure, selecting only the least bug and mold ridden parts to keep. A previous class [8], had taught me that the household natural cleanser Borax is used in earthen building as a mold inhibitor. I also knew of its usefulness in killing bugs as it works its way into their joints, destroying them. This might sound cruel to animal lovers, but a bug infested wall was not an option. I did not find clear indications of how much Borax to use, so I guesstimated, adding about ½ cup of Borax powder over about each foot of depth of manure in my bin. This was adequate for squelching the mold, but the bugs returned so I mixed in more Borax as I went in an ad hoc manner over the weeks of the project. Certainly the Borax was a small percentage of my manure, but I did not measure by weight or volume how much went in, so the more scientific minded should be aware of this loose variable in my formulas (some formulas contain it explicitly by volume).

Straw

Straw is used in earthen building to provide tensile strength; think of it as akin to metal re-bar in mainstream building[9]. Straw allows the surfaces to bend and flex without coming apart; it spreads stresses, as opposed to letting stress fracture off a given section of plaster. I had straw bales on-hand at the site that I was welcomed to work from. Straw for plaster should be well dried with no mold, about 1-3 inches in length [2]. One recommended method to cut the straw to the right length was to put it in a trash bin and use a Weedwacker on it [10]. I couldn't find anybody to loan me their Weedwacker, but this was probably for the best since such an approach would likely constitute abuse-of-power-tools, destroying the Weedwacker (which would require a replacement), and thus not be an appropriate use of technology. Instead, I got a wheel-barrel full of straw at a time and cut it down with scissors using gloves (the stuff is tougher on the hands than you might guess). Cutting straw became a welcome break during the project; I recommend not preparing it all at once, so you have an easier task to change gears as you work. With more bodies it might not matter, but working by myself, it was a welcome relaxer. One inch straw is recommended for top coats of plaster; first (Key or Scratch) coats should have longer straw to give later coats material to grip to[1]. Before I applied my finish coat of plaster I actually took scissors and trimmed the wall to ensure longer pieces would not stick out after the finish coat went on.

Clay

fig. a: Screening clay; the idea is to get the small stuff through the screen...

In addition to sand and straw, clay is a basic component of bricks and plasters, an alternative to lime, acting as the binder that holds the other elements together[2]. Although I'm focusing on lime and manure, I wanted to try a variety of raw earthen mixes to see if they had comparable durability; if they did, clay mixes certainly would have lower embedded energy costs than the lime, and lower than manure anywhere ruminant animals are not common. Clay is available for sale through potter’s suppliers and elsewhere, but can also be dug right out of the ground. However, high silt ratios in ground clay are bad for

fig. b: ...while keeping out rocks, twigs, and other debris; these clay chunks could probably be broken down smaller and be OK.

building[2]. There are several easy tests to determine clay suitability, the easiest being to roll it between your fingers to make a clay 'worm'. If the worm holds its shape, the silt content is low enough to make a decent building clay[11]. A more precise field test is available on Myles' Appropedia page [12]. I brought my resident expert, Ms. Goodshield, out to review my materials before I began. She eloquently waxed about how wonderful the quality of the clay was at the CCAT grounds where I was working, how she only wished she could get clay as good, and that I was lucky to have it right there on-hand. So I trusted her. As another pair of students were building a retaining wall and digging up a lot of clay in process, I helped them by getting it out of their way and into a trash bin. I screened this material by hand through quarter inch screens stapled to wooden frames in order to remove rocks and other debris. From there, all I needed to do was keep it hydrated so that it would retain a putty-like consistency and not turn rock-hard.

Wheat Paste

Wheat-paste is a basic natural glue[2]. It was needed to make a clay slip,[1]. [Recipe under Appendix I: Important Recipes.] Since I would be using wheat paste already, I decided to add it to my plasters in different ratios to see if it was useful as an amendment. I figured the plasters made of lime would cement up well, and hypothesized that wheat paste glue might help the more raw formulas compete. Wheat paste is easily made. [Recipe under Appendix I: Important Recipes.] Use high gluten organic (to keep out extraneous chemicals that might react with other ingredients) wheat flour; do not use whole wheat because it is low in gluten, and the gluten is the gluey part [1]. I bought my organic wheat flower from the local co-op. Wheat-paste will keep in the fridge over-night, but the fresher, the better, one shouldn’t use more than day-old wheat paste[2]. (Note: Wheat glue can be used for all sorts of things, such as to poster walls- “going wheat-pasting”).

Finding Plaster and Color Recipes

Stress Test 1 Design

Having researched some plaster formulas and gathered and prepared my ingredients, it was time to make some test plasters and determine how to administer stress tests [13]. I devised two tests that I used in conjunction. The first test was done with a wire brush like used in construction, about 1 inch wide by 5 inches long and mounted on a 1ft long handle. I used a weight on the brush to scrub the plasters, letting the weight do the work of pushing down, and trying to use my muscles just to maintain a back and forth motion. I didn’t consider the amount of weight important, just that it remain relatively constant. I taped a fist sized rock from the yard onto the back of the brush for weight, then after a few practice runs decided that thirty strokes front and back was an appropriate amount to damage the plasters while leaving enough behind to compare. I used as long as possible strokes across my test patches; they averaged about six inches square.

Stress Test 2 Design

The second test was a two part water test. I decided to shoot my garden hose full blast (not a lot of pressure actually) at the plasters where they were undamaged by the brush test. Again, the amount of water pressure wasn't important for my purposes, just that it was uniform, so full blast it was. To contain the flow and keep it aimed in full pressure against the plaster, I cut a garden hose size opening into a plastic single-serving yogurt cup, then cut about a two inch slit in the edge that would touch the plaster to allow some pressure to escape. I taped this ad hoc funnel more or less water tight onto the end of the hose with duct tape. The idea was for the blast to be concentrated where I aimed, but not allow an unquantifiable pressure build-up; I also thought that to allow moisture to escape outside the cone radius, weakening surrounding areas to a lesser extent, gave me a second surface on which to note damage, all from one test. I decided, after a little trial and error, that using a watch with a seconds hand to time two five-second blasts at the same spot, ten seconds apart, provided just the right amount of damage from which to make comparisons.

Finally, I allowed the water test to dry out over night, under heat lights and fans. Now I repeated the water test, only this time blasting about a third of the way up into brush strokes creating areas in the brush line that got full-blasted by water, others just moistened by proximity, and others not wet at all on the far end; these to compare against the first water test on undamaged plaster, and areas not abused at all except through proximity to the other tests, effectively five different areas per plaster to compare.

Preparation for Experiments

All the plasters had dried for about a week onto particle board, which had been prepared with a clay slip as an adhesion coat[2]. (See Appendix I: Important Recipes for slip recipe.) Slip can be painted or sprayed on with the proper tools; I used a cheap 3 inch brush to paint the slip onto the particle board. After the slip dried I then mixed small of amounts of plaster [See Appendix II: Experiments, for experimental plaster recipes.] and applied them to the particle board by hand [see discussion of Hurling: page 2 under Construction], allowing them to dry for several days.

Experiments

I conducted two rounds of both stress tests described above. The first round was a Discovery round in which I tested five basic plaster mixes. The idea was to gain a hands on feel for the materials strengths and weakness, from which I could form hypothesis to improve the plasters. Educated by the results, I made 26 variations of my best recipes, applied these to more slipped particle board, allowing them too to dry for several days. I then tested these 26 plaster mixes. From the results of this Decision round, I selected the two best recipes for the experimental wall. (See Appendix II: Experiments, for experimental Recipes, Hypothesis, Test Results, Analysis, Conclusions, etc.)


Getting the Color Right

Part of the requirements for this project was to match the wall color to the school stucco color, a beigish pink. This I probably had the least success with, though as close as I got it really wasn't bad at all. To start it is necessary to first make a lime-wash. (Recipe under Appendix I: Important Recipes.)

The first run through I missed the pink tone. I used combination of yellow iron oxide, yellow ochre, and burnt umber mineral pigments mixed in quantities of 1/8 cup with between 1-4 cups of lime-wash. This created various beige tones, that when allowed to dry and compared against nearby columns revealed my need to move in a pink direction. That failed first batch consisted of eleven different samples. However, I did learn enough to try more precise ratios the next go, my mixes at one cup lime-wash were obviously too dark, as well as too beige.

The pigments are powdered minerals, mix them completely into water before adding to paint recipes to avoid ugly color clumping.

The second batch consisted of 15 samples- 3 came close. The first of the three consisted of 3 cups lime-wash, 1/8 cup yellow iron oxide and 1/8 cup red iron oxide. This recipe was a little too dark. The next two were very close in tone and I could have opted for either. Mix two was 2 cups lime-wash, 1/8 cup yellow iron oxide, and 1 tablespoon red iron oxide. The third mix was 2 cups lime-wash, 1/8 cup yellow ochre and 1 tablespoon red iron oxide. I chose this last mix because yellow ochre was cheaper than yellow iron oxide. I call it School Stucco Pink. [converted to 1 gallon, Recipe under Appendix I: Important Recipes.]

During the color test phase I was advised and given pigments by the professors of the campus ceramics lab, to whom I offer my gratitude. When I actually readied to make my lime-wash for the color coat, I bought pigment from the local ceramics supplier.

(Note: since I’ve been back, maintenance has now painted the columns near CCAT to the much more beige tone I’d originally gone for. I’m guessing now that my first color attempts were based on stucco closer to the ceramics shop, which colors I revised to pink when I saw the column color nearer CCAT. Maintenance have now apparently carried the more beige scheme over to the CCAT end of Campus leaving my poor wall behind and now noticeably pink.)

References

Thanks to Pennelys Goodshield of Sustainable Nations for invaluable training and advice, as well as to, Myles Danforth and Lonny Grafman.

  1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Goodshield, P. (2009). Workshop Director, Sustainable Nations, (http://sustainablenations.org/). (K. S. Perry, Interviewer) Arcata, CA. First I took I work-shop with Ms. Goodshield on natural plaster and lime-wash. Then I was able to interview her several times and she stopped by the site to consult once.
  2. 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 Guelberth, Cedar Rose & Dan Chiras. The Natural Plaster Book: Earthen, Lime, and Gypsum Plasters for Natural Homes. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Publishers, 2003.Of all the books I read through, only one did I find myself drawn back to over and again.... This book seemed to have, compared to others, the most agreed upon and middle-of-the-road recipes; I derived all my basic formulas from it and barely scratched the surface.
  3. Danforth, Myles. (2009, Spring). (K. Scott Perry,Interviewer) Arcata, CA. Myles was knowledgeable and had plenty of helpful advice.
  4. Grafman, Lonny. (2009, Spring Semester). Engineering 305. Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA. This class provided much useful basic information for this project.
  5. Danforth, Myles. (2009, Spring). (K. Scott Perry,Interviewer) Arcata, CA. Myles was knowledgeable and had plenty of helpful advice.
  6. Mallinckrodt Baker, Inc. (2009, September 23). Material Safety Data Sheet, Calcium Oxide. (Environmental Health & Safety, Producer) Retrieved December 19, 2010, from [[1]]. Technical specifications of lime from a chemical / industrial standpoint.
  7. Lyons, Arthur. (2007). Materials for Architects and Builders (3rd ed.). San Diego, CA, USA: Butterworth Heineman. A University text designed for professional builders. Notable for its' background on lime, and chemistry equations for those interested.
  8. Engineering 114. (2006, Spring Semester). Humboldt State Univesity, Arcata, CA. This class provided a knowledge base that contributed to the project.
  9. Grafman, Lonny. (2009, Spring Semester). Engineering 305. Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA.
  10. Danforth, Myles. (2009, Spring). (K. Scott Perry,Interviewer) Arcata, CA.
  11. Grafman, Lonny. (2009, Spring Semester). Engineering 305. Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA.
  12. Danforth, M. (2009). CCAT natural wall construction. Retrieved December 19, 2010, from Appropedia: (http://www.appropedia.org/CCAT_natural_wall_construction). The Appropedia page documenting how Myles built the wall I would plaster and paint.
  13. Grafman, Lonny. (2009, Spring Semester). Engineering 305. Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA.


Also see CCAT Natural Exterior Wall Plaster and Paint, part 2; or skip to CCAT Natural Exterior Wall Plaster and Paint, Appendix.

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