Editing Blackberries

[[File:Blackberries01.jpg|thumb|Wild blackberries]]

Blackberries are the fruit of many ''Rubus'' species grouped together as the ''Rubus fruticosus'' species aggregate{{W|Species complex}}, sometimes commonly referred to as "brambles".

== Taxonomy ==

Family: Rosaceae (the "rose family")

Genus: 	''Rubus''

Species: ''Rubus fruticosus agg.''

== Varieties / Cultivars ==

''Early season:''

* '''"Helen"''' - Thornless. 1.8-2.4 stems (relatively compact). Small fruit. Traditional blackberry flavour, eating quality variable. Very early season (ripen mid-July onwards).<ref name="titchmarsh2008" /><ref name="crawford2016" /><ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Black Butte"''' - Thorny. Moderately vigorous. 1.8-2.4m stems. Heavy cropping. V large (up to 5cm), good quality fruit. Moderate flavour which improves when cooked. Early season (ripen end of July onwards).<ref name="titchmarsh2008" /><ref name="rhsadvice">[https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?pid=977 Blackberries and hybrid berries.] (RHS Gardening).</ref>
* '''"Karaka Black"''' - Thorny. Compact. Quite large fruit. Very good flavour. Early season.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Loch Tay"'''[https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/238174/Rubus-fruticosus-agg-Loch-Tay-(PBR)-(F)/Details] (AGM)<nowiki>*</nowiki> - Thornless. Short stems (very compact plant). Crops as well as larger plants. Fair sized fruit. Full flavoured. Ripen mid Aug onwards. Good weather damage resistance.<ref name="titchmarsh2008" /><ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Natchez"''' - Thornless. Vigorous. Heavy cropping. Large fruit. Pleasant flavour. Early season.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Obsidian"''' - (very) Thorny. Fairly vigorous, but brittle canes. Moderate cropping. Large fruit. Good flavour. Early season.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Sylvan" / "Silvan"''' (AGM)<nowiki>*</nowiki> - Thorny. Very vigorous. Large fruit. Tolerant to heavy soils, wind and drought. Early season.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Adrienne"''' - Thornless. Good cropping of long fruit of excellent flavour. Early season.<ref name="crawford2016" />
* '''"Bedford Giant"''' - Thorny, vigorous canes. Heavy cropping. Large fruit of average flavour. Early season.<ref name="crawford2016" />

''Mid-season:''

* '''"Waldo"''' - Thornless. Moderately vigorous. Semi-upright, brittle canes. Heavy cropping. Fruite large and firm. Good flavour. Fruit keep well. Mid season. Prone to viruses. Cane and leaf spot resistant.<ref name="crawford2016" /><ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Ashton Cross"''' - Thorny. Very vigorous. Thin canes. Heavy cropping. Small-medium sized fruit. Good flavour. Fruit well suited for freezing and jam making. Mid season.<ref name="crawford2016" /><ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Fantasia"'''[https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/59044/Rubus-fruticosus-Fantasia-(PBR)-(F)/Details] - Thorny. Very vigorous. Heavy cropping. Large fruit. Well flavoured. Mid season.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Loch Maree"''' - Thornless. Moderately vigorous. Small fruit. Good, wild blackberry flavour. Mid-season.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Ouachita"''' - Almost thornless. Fairly vigorous. Very large leaves. Heavy cropping. Good size fruit. Well flavoured. Mid season.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Little Black Prince"''' - Thornless. Dwarf blackberry. Medium size fruit. Good flavour. Needs full sun. Mid-season.<ref name="rhsadvice" />

''Mid–late season:''

* '''"Oregon Thornless"'''[https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/45647/Rubus-fruticosus-Oregon-Thornless-(B)/Details] - Thornless. Moderately vigorous. Good cropping in fertile soils. Fruits medium sized, firm. Mild, sweet, good flavour. Evergreen or semi-evergreen.<ref name="crawford2016" /><ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Navaho"''' - Thornless. Moderately vigorous. Good cropper. Large fruit. Good, sweet flavour when well ripened.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Loch Ness"'''[https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/75680/Rubus-fruticosus-agg-Loch-Ness-(PBR)-(F)-AGM/Details] (AGM)<nowiki>*</nowiki> - Thornless. Relatively compact, upright growth habit. Very heavy cropping. Fruit large and firm. Good flavour when well ripened. Mid-late season.<ref name="crawford2016" /><ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Black Satin"''' - Vigorous canes. Productive. Large fruit, firm and keep well. Mid-late season. Resistant to Cane Spot.<ref name="crawford2016" />
* '''"Himalaya"''' - Thorny. Long, stout canes. Extremely vigorous. Moderate cropping. Fruit medium sized of average flavour. Mid-late season. Good in barriers and windbreaks.<ref name="crawford2016" />

''Late season:''

* '''"Asterina"''' - Thornless. Very vigorous. Heavy cropping. Medium to large fruit. Good flavour when fully ripe.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Čačanska Bestrna"''' - Thornless. Very vigorous. Heavy cropping. Fairly acidic flavour unless well ripened.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Chester"''' - Thornless. Very vigorous. Heavy cropping. Medium to large fruit. Moderate flavour. Good disease resistance. In the North of the UK, needs a sheltered spot.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Himalayan Giant"''' - (very) Thorny. Very vigorous (needs space). Heavy cropping. Medium-sized fruit.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Triple Crown"''' - Thornless. Moderately vigorous. Semi-erect stems. Good cropper. Medium to large fruit. Moderate eating quality.<ref name="rhsadvice" />
* '''"Veronique"''' - Thornless. Compact, semi-upright growth habit. Good crops of large fruit in late Summer.<ref name="titchmarsh2008" />
* '''"Thornfree"''' - Thornless. Vigorous. Very heavy cropping. Fruit medium-large sized. Sweet-acid flavour. Late season.<ref name="crawford2016" />
* '''"Reuben"''' - Thorny. Fairly compact. Large fruit. Moderate flavour. Primocane. Very late ripening. Needs warm and sunny late summer and autumn weather for crop to ripen.<ref name="rhsadvice" />

<nowiki>*</nowiki>The Award of Garden Merit (AGM) is a certification awared by the Royal Horticultural Society highlighting a variety which is deemed to perform very well and is suitable for the amateur to grow in a garden.

The RHS Trial of Blackberry and Hybrid Berry carried out in 2013-2015 compared 19 common cultivars of blackberry and ''Rubus'' hybrids. The report goes into great detail and is an excellent resource to help with selecting cultivars.[http://apps.rhs.org.uk/planttrials/TrialReports/Blackberry%20and%20Hybrid%20Berry%202013-2015.pdf]

== Hybrid Berries ==

The distinction between blackberry and hybrid berry cultivars can be blurred. Hybrid berries are the result of crossing between various ''Rubus'' species, typically blackberries and raspberries.<ref name="bird2011" /> The creation of such hybrids can be a complex story, and in modern times the exact parentage of some are disagreed upon. The Marionberry for example has a complex parentage. A blackberry–raspberry hybrid was crossed with a dewberry to create the Youngberry{{W|Youngberry}} (hexapoloid, with red berries). The Youngberry was crossed with a Loganberry (a Dewberry - Raspberry hybrid with dark red berries) to create Olallieberry{{W|Olallieberry}}. Another hybrid, Chehalem blackberry is a cross between the Himalayan blackberry and the Santiam berry, which is itself a cross between the California blackberry and the Loganberry. Olallieberry and Chehalem have been crossed to produce the very widespread Marionberry (currently the most common blackberry cultivar). There is a hybrid variety with Boysenberry in Australia called Silvanberry. Despite their parentage involving plants other than blackberries, the Marionberry and Silvanberry tend to be considered blackberries, while the following tend to be considered hybrid berries.

* [[Boysenberries|Boysenberry]] (Unclear origin. Possibly parentage involves European raspberry (''Rubus idaeus''), European blackberry (''Rubus fruticosus''), American dewberry (''Rubus aboriginum''), and loganberry (''Rubus × loganobaccus'')
* [[Loganberry]] (''R. caesius'' / Dewberry × Raspberry)
* [[Tayberry]] (Blackberry × Raspberry)
* [[Tummelberry]]

== Common names ==

* Blackberry.<ref name="rhsdatabase">[http://apps.rhs.org.uk/horticulturaldatabase/hortdatabase.asp?id=16132 ''Rubus fruticosus agg.'' (RHS Horticultural Database)].</ref>
* Bramble.<ref name="rhsdatabase" />
* Common blackberry.<ref name="rhsdatabase" />
* Common bramble.<ref name="rhsdatabase" />
* Bumble-kites.<ref name="rhsdatabase" />
* Shrubby blackberry.<ref name="pfaf">[https://pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?latinname=Rubus+fruticosus ''Rubus fruticosus'' (Plants For A Future).]</ref>

== Etymology ==

'''Blackberry (n.)''': "fruit of the bramble," early 12c., from Old English ''blaceberian'', from black (adj.) + berry. So called for the color. Also in Old English as ''bremelberie'', ''bremelæppel'' (from bramble).

'''Bramble (n.)''': Old English ''bræmbel'' "rough, prickly shrub" (especially the blackberry bush), from earlier ''bræmel'', from Proto-Germanic ''bræmaz'' "thorny bush" (source also of Dutch ''braam'', German ''Brombeere'' "blackberry"), from Proto Indo-European ''bh(e)rem''- "projection / point / spike / edge / growl."[https://www.etymonline.com/word/blackberry#etymonline_v_27188]

== Range ==

== History ==

== Morphology ==

== Behaviour ==

Deciduous shrub.<ref name="crawford2016" /> Growth habit is long and scrambling.<ref name="crawford2016" /> It is perennial but the stems are biennial, fruiting on the second year.

In the wild, it "moves" by putting down new roots where its arching shoots touch the ground.<ref name="crawford2016" />

== Reproduction ==

White flowers in Spring.<ref name="crawford2016" /> Self fertile (one plant will fruit by itself).<ref name="crawford2016">Crawford, M (2016). [https://www.worldcat.org/title/creating-a-forest-garden-working-with-nature-to-grow-edible-crops/oclc/1041938577&referer=brief_results Creating a Forest Garden: working with nature to grow edible crops]. Green Books. ISBN 9781900322621.</ref> Insect pollinated.
 

== Hardiness ==

zone 6 (UK).<ref name="pfaf" /> Zone 5-9 (USDA).<ref name="pfaf" /> Not frost tender<ref name="pfaf" />

== Soil Type ==

Tolerant of most soil types.<ref name="crawford2016" /> Indeed, wild blackberries can often be found growing in very poor soils. Prefers rich, well-drained soil.<ref name="seymour2014" />

== Soil pH ==

Ideal is pH 7.<ref name="seymour2014" />

== Shade Preference ==

Full sun.<ref name="crawford2016" />

== Shade Tolerance ==

Tolerates fairly deep shade (i.e. no direct sun but some indirect light).<ref name="crawford2016" /> Fruiting is reduced in shade.<ref name="crawford2016" />

== Aspect ==

For most cultivars, facing is not too important.

== Exposure ==

More productive in a sheltered site.<ref name="seymour2014">Seymour, M (2014). [https://www.worldcat.org/title/new-self-sufficient-gardener/oclc/972683557?referer=br&ht=edition The New Self-Sufficient Gardener: The complete illustrated guide to planning, growing, storing and preserving your own garden produce.] Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 9781409346784.</ref>

== Propagation ==

'''From Seed''': Seed requires warm and cold stratification (see Seed Stratification{{W|Stratification (seeds)}}). E.g. keep seed in a box of sand at warm room temperature for 3 months, then store at 4°c (40°F) for a further 3 months.<ref name="seymour2014" />

'''Tip cuttings''': cut the tip of a cane off and push it in the soil and usually it will root.<ref name="seymour2014" /> The simplest method.<ref name="seymour2014" />

'''Tip layering''': In summer, bend a healthy, vigorous shoot down so that the tip touches the ground and ig a 10cm (4') deep hole at that point.<ref name="rhs2012" /> Bury the tip with well firmed down soil. By late autumn or winter the tip will have rooted and can be separated from the parent plant.<ref name="rhs2012">Brickell, C; Royal Horticultural Society (2012). [https://www.worldcat.org/title/royal-horticultural-society-encyclopedia-of-gardening/oclc/819914706&referer=brief_results Encyclopedia of Gardening]. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 9781409364658.</ref>

'''Hardwood cuttings''': take in winter.<ref name="crawford2016" />

Can also be propagated by dividing the roots or by removing a sucker.<ref name="seymour2014" />

Plant cuttings, layers, roots or seedlings in late autumn or early spring.<ref name="seymour2014" />

Plant potted or bare-rooted new plants in winter.<ref name="crawford2016" />

== Cultivation Design ==

Allow 1.8m (6ft) between plants.<ref name="seymour2014" />

== Maintenance ==

Little maintenance needed.<ref name="crawford2016" /> Weed all around the base of the plants.<ref name="titchmarsh2008">Titchmarsh, A (2008). [https://www.worldcat.org/title/kitchen-gardener-grow-your-own-fruit-and-veg/oclc/182664117?referer=br&ht=edition The kitchen gardener: grow your own fruit and veg.] London BBC. ISBN 9781846072017.</ref> Heavy mulch of well-rotted organic matter in spring.<ref name="titchmarsh2008" /> General purpose feed (e.g. blood, fish and bone) in late April.<ref name="titchmarsh2008" />

== Watering ==

Once established, very little watering required, only during very dry summers.<ref name="titchmarsh2008" />

== Pruning & Training ==

Fruiting occurs on stems which are in their second year. Generally idea of pruning blackberry is therefore to remove the canes which have just fruited in the last growing season.<ref name="seymour2014" /> This pruning is best done in winter<ref name="seymour2014" /> when the plant is dormant. However other sources advise pruning sooner after harvest in summer or autumn.<ref name="rhspruningweb">[https://www.rhs.org.uk/Advice/profile?pid=93 Blackberry and hybrid berry: pruning and training (RHS Gardening).]</ref> Pruning needs to be done every year.<refname=rhspruningweb /> T																															he plant can stay healthier and more productive if it is allowed to move.<ref name="crawford2016" />

Exceptions to the above are "Himalaya" and "Evergreen" varieties which can fruit for several years on the same wood, so should not be pruned hard.<ref name="seymour2014" />

== Problems ==

Generally fairly free of problems,<ref name="titchmarsh2008" /> however can be prone to the same problems as raspberries.<ref name="bird2011" />

'''Orange Rust.''' A fungal disease (causative organism is ''Arthuriomyces peckianus'' or ''Gymnoconia nitens''). Symptoms: bright orange spores under the leaves, spindly shoots with narrow leaves.<ref name="seymour2014" /> Root out and burn afflicted plants.<ref name="seymour2014" /> See these articles on Gardening Know How for more information.[https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/edible/fruits/blackberries/blackberry-orange-rust-treatment.htm][https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/edible/fruits/fegen/treating-orange-rust-in-brambles.htm]

'''Brids.''' Birds will eat some of the blackberries<ref name="rhsgrowyourown">[https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/grow-your-own/fruit/blackberries How To Grow Blackberries (RHS Gardening).]</ref> but this is not usually a big problem requiring any action.

'''Leafhoppers.''' Jumping, light green insects, approximately 3mm (1/8in) long.<ref name="rhsgrowyourown" /> Tends to occur in sheltered sites.<ref name="rhsgrowyourown" /> Symptoms: white flecking on leaves.<ref name="rhsgrowyourown" /> No action necessary.<ref name="rhsgrowyourown" />

== Harvest ==

Fruiting depends on variety, and occurs from Mid July to October.<ref name="crawford2016" /> Fruit ripens over several weeks on the plants.<ref name="crawford2016" /> In Oklahoma, the berries are picked in the weeks following the July 4th weekend.

The best time to harvest is when the fruit is almost ready to fall off.<ref name="seymour2014" /> Sometimes the fruit can look ripe in colour, but taste very sharp, needing slightly more time on the plant to ripen. Pick only the plump, firm, fully coloured berries. The fruit will not continue to ripen more once picked. Cooking may improve flavour however.

Once picked, the blackberries need to be eaten within a few days. Some varieties keep slightly
better than others.

When harvesting blackberries, watch out for chiggers (also known as berry bugs, see Trombiculidae{{W|Trombiculidae}}). These are small mites that can cause rashes and itchiness when they bite.

== Preservation ==

Fresh fruits do not store for long.<ref name="crawford2016" /> They can be stored in shallow boxes and refridgerated or frozen.<ref name="seymour2014" />

== Uses ==

* Fruit is edible raw, or cooked. Can be made into jams, cobblers, pies, jellies, etc.
* Fruit can be juiced.<ref name="bird2011">Bird, R (2011). [https://www.worldcat.org/title/practical-guide-to-growing-vegetables-fruit-herbs/oclc/992353698&referer=brief_results A practical guide to growing vegetables fruit & herbs.] Hermes House. ISBN 9781843098324.</ref>
* Fruit can be made into wine (see Blackberry wine recepie: [[Making fruit, vegetable and flower wines#Berry Wines]]).
* Bee plant.<ref name="crawford2016" />
* Young shoots (when spines are still soft) can be cooked.<ref name="crawford2016" />
* Leaves can be used to make tea.<ref name="crawford2016" />
* Purple dye from fruit and shoots.<ref name="crawford2016" />
* Basket weaving (spines can be removed by pulling stems through a small hole).<ref name="crawford2016" />

== Nutritional Values ==

== Cooking ==

== References ==

<references />

{{Page data}}

[[Category:Food crops]]
[[Category:Berries]]