This module allows medical officers and surgeons who are not orthopedic specialists to become confident and competent in irrigation and debridement, powered and manual drilling, positioning and correctly inserting Schanz screws, and constructing the uniplanar external fixator frame as part of external fixation procedures for open tibial shaft fractures performed in regions without specialist coverage. To maximize patient safety, this module teaches learners to use a powered drill to insert self-drilling Schanz screws through the near cortex and then manually advance Schanz screws into the far cortex to avoid plunging.
Learning Objectives[edit | edit source]
By the end of this module, learners will be able to:
- Perform uniplanar external fixation of an open tibial shaft fracture.
- Understand this module's training content on uniplanar external fixation of an open tibial shaft fracture and can demonstrate it to others.
- Verbally explain the objectives and principles of uniplanar external fixation of an open tibial shaft fracture.
- Verbally explain the sequence and interrelationship between each procedural step of uniplanar external fixation of an open tibial shaft fracture.
- Precisely imitate the instructed steps and actions of uniplanar external fixation of an open tibial shaft fracture.
- Smoothly complete the operation steps of uniplanar external fixation of an open tibial shaft fracture.
- Monitor their uniplanar external fixation of an open tibial shaft fracture for improvements.
- Monitor their uniplanar external fixation of an open tibial shaft fracture operations and make proper adjustments as needed.[1]
External Fixation of Open Tibial Fractures[edit | edit source]
- External Fixation Principles and Overview
- The Use of External Fixation in the Emergency Department
- Basic Techniques - External Fixation (English-only pdf document)
- Diaphyseal Tibial Fractures External Fixation (English language video)
- External Fixators for Tibial Fractures
Uniplanar External Fixation of Open Tibial Shaft Transverse Fractures[edit | edit source]
Surgical Safety Checklist[edit | edit source]
- World Health Organization Surgical Safety Checklist (available in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish, Portuguese, Farsi, German, Italian (draft), Norwegian, Nynorsk, and Swedish)
Procedure Checklist[edit | edit source]
Please print out the Procedure Checklist below and write your name, your assistant's name, and date of training at the bottom of the Procedure Checklist.
It's highly recommended to: (i) print off this checklist and review it before the surgical case, (ii) bring it to the operating room and have an non-sterile operating room staff member read out and complete this checklist to verify that all steps are properly performed during the actual clinical procedure, (iii) file the completed checklist in the patient's medical record, and (iv) save a copy for your training records.
| # | Self-Assessment Checklist | Check the most appropriate response |
|---|---|---|
| 1A | Wore proper eye protection and gloves |
Done Correctly Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 1B | Performed irrigation using an average of 3L of irrigation solution for each successive Gustilo Type (i.e., 6L for Gustilo Type II open tibial fracture and 9L for Gustilo Type III open tibial fracture) |
Done Correctly Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 1C | Debrided all foreign material and non-viable tissue | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 2A | Extended the open wound, if necessary, to directly visualize the fracture | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 2B | While directly visualizing the fracture, applied manual longitudinal traction to the distal lower extremity to reduce the fracture | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 2C | Used bone reduction forceps to manually reduce the fracture, compress the fragments together, and restore alignment:
|
Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 2D | Confirmed restoration of rotational alignment by visually checking the position of the big toe and the alignment of the middle of the second toe with the center of the patella
|
Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 2E | Palpated the medial malleolus of both limbs under sterile conditions to estimate and compare the length of the reduced limb to the uninjured limb
|
Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 2F | If required, adjust the fragments to achieve an alignment within acceptable parameters:
|
Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 2G | Applied bone holding forceps to maintain the reduced fracture | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3A | Positioned the “far” Schanz screw (furthest from the fracture line) in the proximal fragment in the anteromedial tibial wall medial or distal to the tibial tuberosity while avoiding traumatized soft tissues |
Done Correctly Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3B | Used a 22 blade scalpel to make a stab incision in the soft tissue (overlying the anteromedial tibial wall for insertion of the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3C | Used dissecting scissors to spread the soft tissue apart in the stab incision to expose the bone for drilling of the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3D | Prepared the powered surgical drill for use by inserting the Schanz screw into the powered surgical drill, inserting the chuck key into the opening in the drill, turning the chuck key clockwise to tighten the drill over the Schanz screw, and then engaging the switch for forward drilling direction | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3E | Confirmed that the drill is ready for use by pressing the on/off trigger and observing that the Schanz screw tip is rotating clockwise when the drill is pointing forward | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3F | Used the properly sized drill sleeve and placed the drill sleeve directly on the near cortex in the stab incision to protect the surrounding soft tissues when drilling in the real clinical procedure | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3G | Placed the Schanz screw tip directly on the near cortex of the anteromedial tibial wall and not on the anterior tibial crest | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3H | Inserted the "far" Schanz screw in the proximal fragment at a drill trajectory angle between 30°-60° relative to the tibial crest to reduce the risk of damage to neurovascular structures | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3I | Directed an assistant to perform sirrigation while drilling to reduce the risk of thermal osteonecrosis | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3J | Started drilling with the Schanz screw tip rotating in a clockwise direction, and ensured that the tip did not slip on the near cortex which can injure the medial and lateral soft tissues | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3K | Power drilled the Schanz screw through the near cortex of the anteromedial tibial wall and used tactile feel and acoustic feedback to stop drilling after passing through the near cortex and before or when the inner surface of the far cortex is reached to avoid plunging through the far cortex and damaging underlying neurovascular structures and soft tissues | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3L | Inserted the chuck key into the opening in the drill, turned the chuck key anticlockwise, detached the drill and removed the drill sleeve from the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3M | Slid the universal chuck with T-handle over the Schanz screw, and tightened the chuck over the Schanz screw by manually rotating the proximal part of the chuck clockwise or by inserting the chuck key into the opening in the universal chuck with T-handle and turning the chuck key clockwise | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3N | Used the universal chuck with T-handle to turn the Schanz screw manually for one to two 360 degree rotations to anchor the screw tip into the far cortex without exiting the far cortex | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 3O | Detached the universal chuck with T-handle from the Schanz screw by manually rotating the proximal part of the chuck anticlockwise or inserting the chuck key into the small, circular opening in the chuck and turning the chuck key anticlockwise | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4A | Placed the "far" Schanz screw (furthest from the fracture line) in the distal fragment in the anteromedial tibial wall at least two fingers’ breadth proximal to the medial malleolus while avoiding traumatized soft tissues | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4B | Positioned the two “far” Schanz screws as widely spaced as possible into each fragment while avoiding traumatized soft tissues, and entry into knee and ankle joints |
Done Correctly Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4C | Used a 22 blade scalpel to make a stab incision in the soft tissue overlying the anteromedial tibial wall for insertion of the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4D | Used dissecting scissors to spread the soft tissue apart in the stab incision to expose the bone for drilling of the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4E | Inserted the Schanz screw into the powered surgical drill, inserted the chuck key into the opening in the drill, turned the chuck key clockwise to tighten the drill over the Schanz screw, and then engaged the switch for forward drilling direction | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4F | Confirmed that the drill is ready for use by pressing the on/off trigger and observing that the Schanz screw tip is rotating clockwise when the drill is pointing forward | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4G | Used the properly sized drill sleeve and placed the drill sleeve directly on the near cortex in the stab incision to protect the surrounding soft tissues when drilling in the real clinical procedure | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4H | Placed the Schanz screw tip directly on the near cortex of the anteromedial tibial wall and not on the anterior tibial crest | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4I | Inserted the "far" Schanz screw in the distal fragment at an identical drill trajectory angle between 30°-60° relative to the tibial crest to the "far" Schanz screw in the proximal fragment | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4J | Directed an assistant to perform irrigation while drilling to reduce the risk of thermal osteonecrosis | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4K | Started drilling with the Schanz screw tip rotating in a clockwise direction, and ensured that the tip did not slip on the near cortex which can injure the medial and lateral soft tissues | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4L | Power drilled the Schanz screw through the near cortex of the anteromedial tibial wall and used tactile feel and acoustic feedback to stop drilling after passing through the near cortex and before or when the inner surface of the far cortex is reached to avoid plunging through the far cortex and damaging underlying neurovascular structures and soft tissues | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4M | Inserted the chuck key into the opening in the drill, turned the chuck key anticlockwise, detached the drill and removed the drill sleeve from the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4N | Slid the universal chuck with T-handle over the Schanz screw, and tightened the chuck over the Schanz screw by manually rotating the proximal part of the chuck clockwise or by inserting the chuck key into the opening in the universal chuck with T-handle and turning the chuck key clockwise | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4O | Used the universal chuck with T-handle to turn the Schanz screw manually for one to two 360 degree rotations to anchor the screw tip into the far cortex without exiting the far cortex | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 4P | Detached the universal chuck with T-handle from the Schanz screw by manually rotating the proximal part of the chuck anticlockwise or inserting the chuck key into the small, circular opening in the chuck and turning the chuck key anticlockwise | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 5A | Inserted 4 pin-to-rod clamps on a 300 mm uniplanar rod and applied the two outer pin-to-rod clamps to connect the two "far" Schanz screws in each fragment to the 300 mm rod | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 5B | Tightened the two outer pin-to-rod clamps initially by hand and left the two inner pin-to-rod clamps loosened | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6A | Placed the “near” Schanz screw (closest to the fracture line) at least 2.0 cm (a finger breadth) from the fracture line while avoiding traumatized soft tissues and positioning the “near and far” Schanz screws as widely spaced as possible in the fragment |
Done Correctly Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6B | Used a 22 blade scalpel to make a stab incision in the soft tissue overlying the anteromedial tibial wall for insertion of the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6C | Used dissecting scissors to spread the soft tissue apart in the stab incision to expose the bone for drilling of the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6D | Inserted the Schanz screw into the powered surgical drill, inserted the chuck key into the opening in the drill, turned the chuck key clockwise to tighten the drill over the Schanz screw, and then engaged the switch for forward drilling direction | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6E | Confirmed that the drill is ready for use by pressing the on/off trigger and observing that the Schanz screw tip is rotating clockwise when the drill is pointing forward | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6F | Inserted the "near" Schanz screw into the loosened pin opening in the rod-to-pin clamp attached to the 300 mm rod | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6G | Placed the Schanz screw tip directly on the near cortex of the anteromedial tibial wall and not on the anterior tibial crest | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6H | Inserted the "near" Schanz screw at an identical drill trajectory angle between 30°-60° relative to the tibial crest to all the other Schanz screws | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6I | Directed an assistant to perform irrigation while drilling to reduce the risk of thermal osteonecrosis | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6J | Started drilling with the Schanz screw tip rotating in a clockwise direction, and ensured that the tip did not slip on the near cortex which can injure the medial and lateral soft tissues | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6K | Power drilled the Schanz screw through the near cortex of the anteromedial tibial wall and used tactile feel and acoustic feedback to stop drilling after passing through the near cortex and before or when the inner surface of the far cortex is reached to avoid plunging through the far cortex and damaging underlying neurovascular structures and soft tissues | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6L | Inserted the chuck key into the opening in the drill, turned the chuck key anticlockwise, detached the drill and removed the drill sleeve from the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6M | Slid the universal chuck with T-handle over the Schanz screw, and tightened the chuck over the Schanz screw by manually rotating the proximal part of the chuck clockwise or by inserting the chuck key into the opening in the universal chuck with T-handle and turning the chuck key clockwise | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6N | Used the universal chuck with T-handle to turn the Schanz screw manually for one to two 360 degree rotations to anchor the screw tip into the far cortex without exiting the far cortex | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 6O | Detached the universal chuck with T-handle from the Schanz screw by manually rotating the proximal part of the chuck anticlockwise or inserting the chuck key into the small, circular opening in the chuck and turning the chuck key anticlockwise | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7A | Placed the “near” Schanz screw (closest to the fracture line) at least 2.0 cm (a finger breadth) from the fracture line while avoiding traumatized soft tissues and positioning the “near and far” Schanz screws as widely spaced as possible in the fragment | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7B | Used a 22 blade scalpel to make a stab incision in the soft tissue overlying the anteromedial tibial wall for insertion of the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7C | Used dissecting scissors to spread the soft tissue apart in the stab incision to expose the bone for drilling of the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7D | Inserted the Schanz screw into the powered surgical drill, inserted the chuck key into the opening in the drill, turned the chuck key clockwise to tighten the drill over the Schanz screw, and then engaged the switch for forward drilling direction | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7E | Confirmed that the drill is ready for use by pressing the on/off trigger and observing that the Schanz screw tip is rotating clockwise when the drill is pointing forward | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7F | Inserted the "near" Schanz screw into the loosened pin opening in the rod-to-pin clamp attached to the 300 mm rod | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7G | Placed the Schanz screw tip directly on the near cortex of the anteromedial tibial wall and not on the anterior tibial crest | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7H | Inserted the "near" Schanz screw at an identical drill trajectory angle between 30°-60° relative to the tibial crest to all the other Schanz screws | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7I | Directed an assistant to perform irrigation while drilling to reduce the risk of thermal osteonecrosis | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7J | Started drilling with the Schanz screw tip rotating in a clockwise direction, and ensured that the tip did not slip on the near cortex which can injure the medial and lateral soft tissues | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7K | Power drilled the Schanz screw through the near cortex of the anteromedial tibial wall and used tactile feel and acoustic feedback to stop drilling after passing through the near cortex and before or when the inner surface of the far cortex is reached to avoid plunging through the far cortex and damaging underlying neurovascular structures and soft tissues | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7L | Inserted the chuck key into the opening in the drill, turned the chuck key anticlockwise, detached the drill and removed the drill sleeve from the Schanz screw | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7M | Slid the universal chuck with T-handle over the Schanz screw, and tightened the chuck over the Schanz screw by manually rotating the proximal part of the chuck clockwise or by inserting the chuck key into the opening in the universal chuck with T-handle and turning the chuck key clockwise | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7N | Used the universal chuck with T-handle to turn the Schanz screw manually for one to two 360 degree rotations to anchor the screw tip into the far cortex without exiting the far cortex | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 7O | Detached the universal chuck with T-handle from the Schanz screw by manually rotating the proximal part of the chuck anticlockwise or inserting the chuck key into the small, circular opening in the chuck and turning the chuck key anticlockwise | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 8A | Applied and turned the 11 mm spanner with T-handle wrench clockwise for final tightening of the pin-to-rod clamps. | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 8B | Verified the reduction visually, and with gentle palpation of the tibial crest at the fracture line to confirm that the alignment is still within acceptable parameters:
|
Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 8C | Visually checked the position of the big toe and the alignment of the middle of the second toe with the center of patella to confirm whether rotational alignment is still adequately restored
|
Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 8D | Palpated the medial malleolus of both limbs under sterile conditions to estimate and compare the length of the reduced limb to the uninjured contralateral limb
|
Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 8E | Removed the bone holding forceps once fracture is stabilized with external fixator frame and acceptable alignment is confirmed | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 8F | Checked for skin tenting around Schanz screws and if present, widened the stab incision to release soft tissue tension around the pin site to reduce the risk of inflammation and pin infection | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 8G | Cleaned the extremity and apply sterile gauze dressings to all four pin sites at the end of the procedure | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 8H | Used a measuring tape to measure and compare the limb length (from anterior superior iliac spine to the medial malleolus) of both legs after dressings have been applied
|
Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 8I | Re-evaluated the Gustilo open-fracture classification for the open tibial fracture in the operating room, and updated the antibiotic regimen and surgical treatment plan accordingly | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 9A | Provided specific, clear, and concise directions to the assistant during the simulated procedure |
Done Correctly Done Incorrectly Not Done |
| 9B | Photographed this completed and signed procedure checklist on a cellphone as a backup and filed this original completed procedure checklist in your training records. | Done Correctly
Done Incorrectly Not Done |
Surgical Practitioner's Nameː
Surgical Practitioner's Signature:
Assistant's Nameː
Assistant's Signature:
Procedure Start Time:
Procedure End Time:
Date of Procedureː
Safe Zones of the Tibia[edit | edit source]
The drill trajectory angles of the proximal and distal fragments should be identical.
1
Drill Trajectory Angles for the Proximal Fragment
- Insert the near and far Schanz screws in the proximal fragment at a drill trajectory angle between 30°-60° relative to the tibial crest to reduce the risk of damage to neurovascular structures.
2
Drill Trajectory Angles for the Distal Fragment
- Insert the near and far Schanz screws in the distal fragment at a drill trajectory angle between 30°-60° relative to the tibial crest to reduce the risk of damage to neurovascular structures.
Intra-Operative Assessment[edit | edit source]
1
Gustilo Open-Fracture Classification
The Gustilo open-fracture classification for the injury should be re-evaluated after debridement in the operating room, and the antibiotic regimen and surgical treatment plan updated accordingly.[2][3][4][5]
Gustilo Open-Fracture Classification[3][4]| Gustilo Type I: | An open fracture with a wound less than 1 cm long and clean. |
| Gustilo Type II: | An open fracture with a laceration more than 1 cm long without extensive soft tissue damage, flaps, or avulsions. |
| Gustilo Type IIIA: | Adequate soft-tissue coverage of a fractured bone despite extensive soft-tissue laceration or flaps, or high-energy trauma irrespective of the size of the wound. |
| Gustilo Type IIIB: | Extensive soft-tissue injury loss with periosteal stripping and bone exposure. This is usually associated with massive contamination. |
| Gustilo Type IIIC: | Open fracture associated with arterial injury requiring repair. |
If the injury is re-classified to a Gustilo Type IIIB or Type IIIC, the patient should be referred to a tertiary center with specialist care. A Gustilo Type IIIC injury is a surgical emergency.
2
Limb Rotation
- Restoration of rotational alignment is confirmed by visually checking the position of the big toe and the alignment of the middle of the second toe with the center of patella.[6]
- At 0 degrees of rotation, the big toe is pointing straight up towards the ceiling and the middle of the second toe is aligned with the center of the patella.[7][8][9][6][10][11]
- If the distal lower extremity is rotated > 10 degrees, it should be described as externally or internally rotated.
The acceptable parameters for rotational alignment post-reduction is < 10 degrees. If the reduced tibial fracture is not within acceptable parameters, the fracture fragments must be re-adjusted in the operating room.
3
Skin Tenting
All pin sites will be inspected for skin tenting.
If skin tenting is present, the stab incision should be widened to release any soft tissue tension around the pin site to reduce the risk of inflammation and pin infection.[12]
4
Limb Length
- The medial malleolus of both limbs is palpated under sterile conditions to estimate and compare the length of the reduced limb to the uninjured contralateral limb.
- A measuring tape is used to measure and compare the limb length (from the anterior superior iliac spine to the medial malleolus) of both legs to confirm acceptable length discrepancy in the injured leg after dressings have been applied.[7][13]
The acceptable parameters for limb length discrepancy post-reduction are < 2 cm of shortening and no distraction.[7][8][9] If the reduced tibial fracture is not within acceptable parameters, the fracture fragments must be re-adjusted in the operating room.
Acknowledgements[edit | edit source]
This work is funded by a grant from the Intuitive Foundation. Any research, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this work are those of the author(s), and not of the Intuitive Foundation.
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ Adapted from the L-SES (Learning Self-Efficacy Scale) for Clinical skill assessment described in Kang Y-N, Chang C-H, Kao C-C, Chen C-Y, Wu C-C (2019) Development of a short and universal learning self-efficacy scale for clinical skills. PLoS ONE 14(1): e0209155. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209155
- ↑ https://surgeryreference.aofoundation.org/orthopedic-trauma/adult-trauma/further-reading/principles-of-management-of-open-fractures?searchurl=%2fSearchResults#classification-of-open-fractures
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Gustilo RB, Anderson JT. Prevention of infection in the treatment of one thousand and twenty-five open fractures of long bones: retrospective and prospective analyses. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1976 Jun;58(4):453-8. PMID: 773941.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Gustilo RB, Mendoza RM, Williams DN. Problems in the management of type III (severe) open fractures: a new classification of type III open fractures. J Trauma. 1984 Aug;24(8):742-6. doi: 10.1097/00005373-198408000-00009. PMID: 6471139.
- ↑ Garner MR, Sethuraman SA, Schade MA, Boateng H. Antibiotic Prophylaxis in Open Fractures: Evidence, Evolving Issues, and Recommendations. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2020 Apr 15;28(8):309-315. doi: 10.5435/JAAOS-D-18-00193. PMID: 31851021.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Greene, W.B., Heckman, J.D., & American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. (1994). The clinical measurement of joint motion. Rosemont, Ill: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Nicoll EA. Fractures of the tibial shaft. A survey of 705 cases. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1964 Aug;46:373-87.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 https://www.orthobullets.com/trauma/1045/tibial-shaft-fractures
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 https://www.wheelessonline.com/bones/x-rays-for-tibial-frx/
- ↑ Haonga BT, Liu M, Albright P, Challa ST, Ali SH, Lazar AA, Eliezer EN, Shearer DW, Morshed S. Intramedullary Nailing Versus External Fixation in the Treatment of Open Tibial Fractures in Tanzania: Results of a Randomized Clinical Trial. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2020 May 20;102(10):896-905. doi: 10.2106/JBJS.19.00563. PMID: 32028315; PMCID: PMC7508278.
- ↑ Merchant TC, Dietz FR. Long-term follow-up after fractures of the tibial and fibular shafts. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1989 Apr;71(4):599-606. PMID: 2703519.
- ↑ https://surgeryreference.aofoundation.org/orthopedic-trauma/adult-trauma/tibial-shaft/simple-fracture-transverse/modular-external-fixator#aftercare-following-external-fixation
- ↑ Sabharwal S, Kumar A. Methods for assessing leg length discrepancy. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2008 Dec;466(12):2910-22. doi: 10.1007/s11999-008-0524-9. Epub 2008 Oct 4. PMID: 18836788; PMCID: PMC2628227.