Problem Definition

Objective

Our objective is to construct a classroom that will hold approximately 25 students under the age of 10. We will use locally sourced materials that explore alternative building methods. The classroom will cost no more than conventional construction methods and be at least equally durable.

Background

Las Malvinas is a community near Santo Domingo, the capital city of the Dominican Republic. There are more than 150 families who live in this semi-rural setting, situated next to the Isabella River. By a vote of hands, the community decided that the project they want to collaborate on the most is to add another classroom on to their school using alternative construction methods like papercrete and ecoladrillo.

Papercrete is similar to concrete blocks, but these blocks are made with recycled paper. Ecoladrillo uses wooden frames, plastic bottles, chicken wire, and concrete to make walls.

There is an abundance of both materials (bottles and recycled paper), and there is a need in the community for more space to hold their youngest students. So, we're going to work with the cheapest, most local materials to help Las Malvinas complete this project, while we students from Humboldt State are learning how to implement modes of sustainable construction.

en espanol: Las Malvinas es una comunidad cerca de Santo Domingo, en la República Dominicana. Hay más que 150 familias que se viven en esta escenario rural, al lado del Río Isabella. Por un voto de las manos, la comunidad decidio que el proyecto que se quieren más es que construir una aula para la escuela, usando modos alternativos de construcción como "papercrete" y "ecoladrillo."

"Papercrete" es similar a bloques de concreto, pero estos bloques son de papel reciclado. "Ecoladrillo" se usa botellas plásticas y concreto para hacer paredes.

Hay un abundancia de ambos materiales (botellas y papel reciclados), y necesitan más espacio en la escuela. Entonces, váminos a trabajar con las materiales más locales y baratos para ayudar esta comunidad cumplir este objetivo mientras estámos apriendo a implementar modos de construcción sostenable.

Criteria

Criteria and constrains are needed to determine the success of a solution. Criteria are weighted with 10 being most important and 0 being least important.
Criteria Constraint Weight
Safety The classroom meets or exceeds local building codes 10
Reproduction Costs The total cost of construction is less than the cost of traditional construction. 8
Appropriate Materials Building materials are local, alternatively resourced, and may be easily obtained by the community. 7
Aesthetics The classroom looks good with the existing school structure while having a unique appearance that draws positive attention to its alternative construction. 8
Ease of Use The classroom comfortably accommodates the most number of students possible for the given space, up to 35 students. 7
Community Interest Maximize community involvement to develop their interest in the project, as well as their skills and knowledge necessary to replicate the project later. 10
Research and Development Costs Spend no more than US$1000 5

Literature Review

Climate

The Dominican Republic is in a tropical climate zone, where rainfall varies seasonally but temperatures are relatively static, [1] ranging from 64 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit year round.[2] The rainy season begins in early summer and lasts through mid fall, with the the most powerful tropical storms occurring during August and September.[2] The average annual rainfall is 150cm[3], much of which falls on the northern side of the island. This results in cooler temperatures and higher humidity in comparison to the south.[4]

Earthen Flooring

Introduction

An earthen floor is made up of four basic layers. A layer of substrate dirt or sawdust that is laid down on top of a layer of fine gravel, which is then covered with a layer of clay or sand and sealed with a layer of hemp or linseed oil. The result is a porous, supple and durable floor which can be made for less than a dollar per square foot. (including labor).[5]Rammed earth is a style of earthen floor that uses tamping or ramming to compact and harden the layers. Specific ingredients and construction methods vary by location. The overarching idea is to add water and stabilizing agents like sand and straw to dirt, which is then compacted until hard. Once dry, seal it with an oxidizing oil like linseed or hemp oil. [6]

Methods

For a general rammed earth floor, the first step is to lay down a plastic moisture barrier sandwiched between two thin layers of sand, followed by 4 to 6 inches of compacted "road base mixture."

  • clay, sand, and various types of gravel (ratio unimportant)

It is important to tamp the floor and sprinkle it with water every additional few inches to ensure good and even compaction. The next step is to add a one inch layer of standard earth plaster mix.

  • 6 parts sand, 2 parts clay, 1 part finely chopped straw

The plaster should then be troweled smooth and allowed to dry. Once dry, the final step is to lay down four layers of linseed or hemp oil, allowing each layer to dry before applying the next. The last three coats of oil should be mixed with increasing ratios of citrus paint thinner. [7]

To get the right mix, experiment with a test area of at least 3x3 ft. The mix should be strong enough that it is not powdery when it dries, and it must contain enough fiber so that there are no cracks. Apply the mixture with a trowel in 1/2-3/4" layer. The material should come off cleanly and easily as you move the trowel across the sub-floor. If it sticks, there’s either too much clay or not enough moisture; if it won’t stick to the trowel, there’s either too much moisture or not enough clay. [8]

Homeowners in a wet climate should put down several inches of gravel to enhance drainage. This can be a three- to four- inch layer of clay, sand, and gravel or crushed stone, on top of which lays the half-inch layer of finer mix. If you pour this supportive layer in a damp state—and even add lime to the mixture—it will dry and harden more quickly. [8] A typical earthen floor might include a 2.5-inch base layer of 70% sand, 30% clay, with handfuls of long straw for tensile strength. Once it is dry, the final layer will be installed and smoothed with a trowel, composed of a similar sand to clay ratio, but mixed with very short chopped straw. [9]

Linseed Oil Coating

Increasing amounts of paint thinner in the linseed coatings allow deep penetration of the oil into the floor:

1st coat - Only linseed oil
2nd coat - 3:1 linseed to paint thinner
3rd coat - 2:2
4th coat - 1:3

Boiled linseed oil contains solvents and is highly toxic, while eco-friendly linseed oil can be expensive. “As a compromise, we take raw linseed oil and put it in the sun in shallow pans covered with a piece of glass, leaving a tiny air space. The oil pre-oxidizes and dries faster. It’s called sun-thickened oil.” [8]

Stabilizers

The main categories of binders used for earth construction are Portland cement, lime, bitumen, natural fibre and chemical solutions such as silicates. Benefits of cement addition is improved structural integrity, while a downside is reduced permeability of earthen mixture and thus natural ability of earth to allow passage of moisture throughout the soil mass is reduced. [10] Tests have indicated that there is an optimum lime dosage for a soil beyond which compressive strength decreases. The likely dosages are between 6-12% lime by dry weight and will increase as clay content increases. [10]

Alternative Infill

Introduction

Infill is used in conjunction with frame or post-and-beam style structures to fill in the wall spaces. In such styles, a wood frame or concrete column and beam structure is used to hold up the roof and provide structural support, while the infill is used to seal the building from the elements, as well as provide thermal mass and insulation. Infill is usually considered non-structural, however it can increase lateral support depending on the type. [11]

Ecoladrillo

“Eco-bricks” are a method of alternative infill that use plastic bottles and trash in the bulk of their composition. Bottles and trash are stacked and compacted into a wood frame and held secure by a layer of chicken wire on each face. The two faces are then plastered smooth.[12] Any inorganic waste material can be used to fill the bricks, however ideal materials are those that cannot be recycled others. Examples include: food packaging, old socks, razor blades, used up pens and markers, clothing tags, cotton swabs, etc. The process of "up-cycling" such materials that would otherwise end up in the trash reduces waste and significantly cuts construction costs. [13]

That being said, not all trash makes for good infill material. Anything organic such as food waste will not work. Trash must be clean and moisture free, as well as the bottles, and it is best to stay away from paper waste if at all possible. It is also important to stuff bottles as full as possible to increase insulation. Training of community members about these material requirements is important to ensure a stable and safe structure.[14]

Papercrete

Papercrete is a method of building traditional style cinder blocks out of paper. Soaked and shredded paper is mixed with sand and a binder such as Portland cement or clay, and then compressed into a block mould. Papercrete blocks can be stacked and mortared with papercrete mortar and used as a substitute for traditional concrete blocks. [15]

The type and quality of paper can vary depending on availability. Newsprint or office paper is ideal, but any grade of paper that can be re-pulped will work. Paper that is waterproof and/or has a wax or plastic component such as butcher paper, cardboard, and juice cartons cannot be easily separated in water and will not work. [16]

The ratio of sand is dependent on the needs of the papercrete. A mix with more sand and less paper will dry faster, shrink less, and have more thermal mass and compaction strength. A mixture with more paper and less sand will be provide more insulation and will have more tensile strength, reducing the need for re-bar or other types of tensile supports. If your source of paper is free, more paper will also reduce material costs.[17]

Disadvantages to papercrete in comparison to traditional concrete include:

  • Longer drying time, especially in humid climates
  • More vulnerability to fire
  • More vulnerability to mold growth
  • More vulnerability to water damage

Advantaves to papercrete include:

  • More dimensional stability under different types of stresses
  • Significantly lighter than traditional block
  • High insulation (R-value of 2 per every half inch)
  • Resistant against rodent and insect infestation[15]

Sawdust

When considering sawdust as a building material, there are functionally two different types wood: hardwood and softwood. The quality of the sawdust will vary depending on the species, but most hardwoods are relatively better than softwoods at absorbing water, which are typically harder and grainier. For this reason, sawdust gathered from hardwoods is more ideal. Sawdust can be used in mixes with clay to make adobe and cob or with cement to make concrete and plaster substitutes. It can provide insulation, protection against freezing. It can also be found for free.[18]

Cob and adobe are made from mixtures of clay, sand, lime, sawdust and/or green waste. The ratio's can vary greatly depending on availability and quality of materials, making cob and adobe very adaptable building materials. Because Las Malvinas has an abundance of sawdust, the ratio with the most potential requires 9 parts sawdust, 3 parts clay, 2 parts lime, and 1 part sand. The sawdust is soaked overnight and dried for a few hours, then mixed by hand or by hoe with the rest of the mixture and water.[18] The amount of water need varies depending on the moisture content already present in the clay. The mixture can be made into adobe bricks or built up in monolith. Cob or adobe made with more sawdust rather than green waste will also dry faster.[19]

A mixture of sawdust, sand, and cement can also be used in infill. The mixture requires less cement than concrete or traditional cement plasters, however there is little information regarding its structural integrity. The common ratio is 3 parts sawdust, 2 parts sand, and 1 part cement, and the final mixture can be used as a plaster over another alternative infill material such as eco-brick.[20]

Structure

Introduction

The structure of a building is there to provide support and stability against the compressive and tensile forces acting on it, both from the dead weight of the building itself and from external stresses such as wind, rain, and earthquakes. There are multiple methods of structural construction, but all of them must meet the same three basic criteria:

  • Structural members must be strong enough
  • Structural members must be joined properly
  • Final Structure must be rigid

The degree to which each criteria must be met depends on the needs present, the resources available, and the expected forces. [21]

Post-and-Beam Construction

Post-and-beam style construction is a widely used and trusted method of structural building. In this style, concrete columns or wood posts are spaced up to eight feet apart and used as compressive members. The diameter and spacing of the columns/posts are dependent on each other.

  • Larger spacing requires larger diameter columns/posts
  • Smaller columns/posts requires smaller spacing

These compressive members are hammered into the ground or supported by concrete foundations, the depth of which are dependent on the height of the columns/posts. A general rule for single story structures requires 3 feet of depth for 8 feet of height.[22]

Corrugated Tin Roofing

Corrugated tin roofing is commonly used in tropical areas because of its durability, sturdiness, and light weight design. The key attribute leading to the ability to remain useful for so long is due to the special corrugated shape the metal is formed to. [23] Main types of metals used are aluminum, galvanized steel, copper, aluzinc, and tin. [24] Integrated ventilation is very important since this style of material if often used in tropical, humid climates. It is meant to provide insulation from heat during most of the year, so to "provide generous wall openings, large doors and windows" is key during the construction of the roof. [25]

Natural Paints

Introduction

Natural paints are non toxic naturally derived alternatives to traditional synthetic household paints.[26] Their non toxicity reduces exposure to harmful air pollutants such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that off gas from traditional synthetic paints[27], and many natural paints are biodegradable and compostable.[26] There are many different compositions of natural paints and examples of success for each, however there is little legitimate resistance and durability performance data on any of them. Therefore it is important to test each composition thoroughly before application.[28]

Ingredients

In synthetic paints as well as natural paints, there are four basic ingredients:

  • Pigments
  • Binders
  • Fillers (for bulk and/or texture)
  • Solvents (such as thinners, biocides, and drying catalysts)[29]

Natural alternatives to solvents are generally not as proficient as those used in synthetic paints. Therefore natural paints often take longer to dry and are typically not as smooth or durable against degradation as synthetic paints. This is not universally true and different compositions will have different strengths and weaknesses as well as different aesthetics. [30]

Preparation and Tools

Because there is so little data on natural paints, time and resources for testing are important. Consistency and shade is important and difficult to replicate over multiple mixes, therefore it is crucial to work out the exact quantity of paint needed for the planned area. This requires knowing the absorbency of the surface being painted, the thickness of the paint, and the number of coats needed. Keeping a detailed record of the testing process is highly recommended.[31]

The most important tool to acquire is a good brush. Something with a densely packed head and long stiff bristles works well for mixing paints and breaking up dry ingredients. Alternative application devices such as sponges and rollers are also important to have. They allow for more experimentation with the aesthetics, and different application techniques will work better for different natural paints.[31]

Compositions

Egg Tempera

Egg tempera is composed of raw egg and boiled linseed oil. Any natural pigment can be used to achieve the desired color, and unlike most natural paints, egg tempura paint dries in about an hour. It has a glossy finish, can be used indoors or outdoors, and can last for over 20 years.[32]

Casein Paint

Casein paint is composed of nonfat milk, lime, and some type of filler and pigment. The mixture can be applied indoors or outdoors to all types of surfaces (wood, stone, drywall, wallpaper, earthen plaster, masonry, previously painted surfaces, etc). Casein Paint is also fungi resistant, compostable, and long lasting.[29]

Water Based Paints

Water is the the most commonly used natural alternative to synthetic solvents. Distemper is a water based paint composed of chalk and rabbit skin glue. The mixture works best with pastel pigments and its thick texture presents unique aesthetic opportunities. Limewash is a water based paint composed of lime putty and pigment. It is thick and chalky like distemper but with increased durability and antibacterial properties. [31]

Timeline

Jun. 7, 2012

  • First group meeting with the community
  • Multiple projects and alternative materials are presented
  • Community members takes a vote on which they are most interested in
  • The decision is made to construct an additional classroom at the school
  • High interest in using papercrete as a building material

Jun. 9, 2012 - Jun. 10, 2012

  • Met with Revark at the building site to take measurements
  • Ideas about new room location were discussed
  • Possibility of building two smaller rooms instead of one large room
  • Began soaking paper from the trash for papercrete (later discarded because organic material such as food waste on the paper brought on accelerated decomposition)
  • found large free source of sawdust from a nearby coffin manufacturer (decision is made to explore sawdust as possible building material)

Jun. 11, 2012

  • Divided research and material aquisition responsibilities amongst the team
-General construction, structure (Ariel)
-Roofing, liter of light (Amber)
-Natural paints (Shalyn)
-Climate (Luis)
-Ecoladrillo, papercrete (Camille)
-Rammed earth (Jocelyn)
-Alternative infill possibilities with sawdust (Eric)
  • Began collecting bottles off the street for ecoladrillo
  • Began building ecoladrillo test brick #1 with 2"X4" wood and 2 layers of sand filled bottles
  • Shalyn is dedicated official scribe due to the need for thorough project notes

Jun. 12, 2012

  • Met with Revark to look over building design
  • Committed to traditional column and beam style structure with some type of alternative infill
  • Started search for community members with construction experience who could assist in the building of the columns
  • Developed criteria set and weighted each criterion by importance
  • Began visiting hardware stores to scope out materials and prices

Jun. 15, 2012

  • First meeting with school director to discuss building design and location
  • Issues with design/location:
-New room would block windows of existing room
-Idea to move windows to north wall was rejected due to importance of opposite facing windows for airflow
-Close proximity to the bathrooms
-Blocked on east and west walls by existing structures, which are the ideal walls for window placement
  • Decision was made to build a long, narrow, rectangle shaped room in the available area on the north wall of the school
  • Possibility of constructing additional recycling structure in the front of the school

Jun. 16, 2012

  • Began constructing "labyrinth" of ecoladrillo
  • Three more test blocks are constructed
-Test block #2: 1 square meter 1"X3" wood frame, one layer of empty bottles (size/shape not taken into consideration), open spaces stuffed with plastic trash.
-Test block #3: 1 square meter 1"X3" wood frame, one layer of empty Dasani water bottles (bottom row full of sand for stability and increased thermal mass), 4 rows of 13 bottles, open spaces stuffed with plastic trash
-Test block #4: 1 square meter 1"X2" wood frame, one layer of empty similar shaped bottles, less need for trash stuffing due to thinner wood
  • Started experimenting with sawdust plasters on test blocks (discredited because the test plasters were covered up by a community member due to miscommunication
  • General test notes: Sand filled bottles are too heavy and time consuming to make, 1"X2" wood requires less trash stuffing but is too weak, over-packing makes plaster application more difficult
  • Finalized literature review and problem definition

Jun. 17, 2012

Structure

  • Took measurements for columns and excavated for foundations
  • Decided to build walls on top of existing short perimeter walls to maximize room space
  • Began cutting, bending, and tying rebar into appropriate forms for the columns
  • Poured concrete foundations and secured rebar column forms
  • Built wooden moulds and poured concrete for column bases


Infill

  • Further testing of sawdust plasters for ecoladrillo:
-Ratio #1: 3 sawdust, 2 sand, 1 cement, 0 lime
-Ratio #2: 3 sawdust, 3 sand, 2 cement, 0 lime
-Ratio #3: Equal parts sawdust, sand, and cement, 0 lime
-Ratio #4: 1 sawdust, 1 sand, 1 cement, 1/2 lime
  • General test notes: ratio #1 was very chunky and poorly mixed, ratio #2 was clearly smoother and stronger within the first hour after application (strong possibility), ratio #3 and #4 were very similar to ratio #2 (decision is made to experiment with ratios close to ratio #2)
  • More bottle collection off the street for ecoladrillo (decision is made to explore other bottle collection methods because street collection is too inefficient)


Jun. 18, 2012

  • Group meeting to break into teams and develop team objectives for the following day:
-Team structure (Camille and Jocelyn) objectives: Re-plum rebar to prep for column pouring, pour concrete for the full height of the 4 columns, remove razor wire and poles from chain link fence
-Team ecoladrillo (Eric and Ariel) objectives: Review previous plaster ratios and continue testing new plaster ratios, gather more sawdust from coffin manufacturer
-Team papercrete (Shalyn and Amber) objectives: Find large source of clean free paper and begin soaking paper with lime

Jun. 19, 2012

Structure

  • Removed fence and razor wire surrounding the building site to make room for wooden column moulds
  • Aquired more scrap wood from community members for wooden moulds
  • Decided to use existing fence posts to bolster strength of columns
  • Decided to drill holes in column moulds for protruding steel wire ties secured to rebar within the column
-Steel wire will be used to tie walls into columns
  • Began cutting, bending, and tying rebar forms for concrete beams
  • Decided to build 1 beam on top of each perimeter wall instead of 2 (one on top and one in the middle) due to the added strength of the preexisting foundation for the low perimeter wall
  • Built moulds and poured concrete for 2 of the 4 columns

Infill

  • Began mixing and testing papercrete:
-Test mix #1: 8 soaked and blended newspaper, 4 cement, 2 sand, 1 soaked lime
-Test mix #2: 8 soaked and blended office paper, 4 cement, 2 sand, 1 soaked lime
  • General test notes: Newspaper was much easier to re-pulp than office paper, both tests were insufficiently mixed resulting in strength and aesthetic inconsistencies, over blending of the paper results in minimized tensile strength and under blending of the paper results in greater mix inconsistency, water used in paper blending and lime soaking is sufficient to add and mix in sand and cement (no need to add extra water), both mixes were left to dry in 5 gallon buckets (for lack of proper moulds) and their removal was incredibly difficult (not recommended)
  • Further sawdust plaster tests for ecoladrillo:
-Ratio #5: 4 sawdust, 3 sand, 2 cement, 1/4 lime
  • General test notes: experimented with soaking sawdust and lime in water before adding to mix, mixed large batch on the ground with shovels instead of in a bucket with hand tools and achieved much more complete and consistent mix, ratio #5 was similar in strength and smoothness to ratio #2 despite increased sawdust and decreased cement (decision is made to attempt ratio #1 again with new soaking and mixing technique)


Jun. 21, 2012

Structure

  • Chiseled the 2 previously poured columns to the right height (poured too high)
  • Built moulds and poured concrete for the final 2 columns


Infill

  • Further testing of papercrete:
-Test mix #3: 9 soaked and blended newspaper, 3 soaked and blended office paper, 6 cement, 2 sand, 1 soaked lime
  • General test notes: Test mix #3 was very heavy (too much cement and moisture retention from the paper), decision is made to experiment with less paper and cement and more sand
  • Further testing of sawdust plasters:
-Ratio #6 (back to basics): 3 sawdust, 2 sand, 1 cement, 1/4 lime
  • General test notes: Ratio #6 is the same as ratio #1 but with an addition of lime, new mixing and soaking technique resulted in much smoother and more consistent mix, higher sawdust content resulted in much longer drying time (5+ days with afternoon sun exposure and minimal rain)


Jun. 22, 2012

  • Acquired large source of donated newspaper from El Nuevo Diario, a local news provider (10 bales)
  • Began shredding and soaking paper for new papercrete tests


Jun. 23, 2012

  • (add tv crew info)

Structure

  • Dug and poured foundation for the south west corner between the perimeter wall and the school
  • Cut the extra rebar off the tops of the columns
  • Cut, bent, and tied all of the rebar forms for the beams
  • Chiseled into the north wall of the school where cross beams could be tied in
  • Determined that the clay content in surrounding earth was high enough to attempt testing rammed earth

Infill

  • Secured free usage of a local industry's block making machine to make legitimate papercrete blocks (first available time slot is early the following morning)
  • Blended paper to prepare for block making

Jun. 24, 2012

Structure

  • Built supports and placed rebar forms for the beams
  • Tied and welded rebar from the columns to the beams, and from the cross beams to the school
  • Built moulds and poured concrete for all 6 beams/crossbeams

Infill

References

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  2. 2.0 2.1 "Insights from the field: Appendix B." <http://www.peacecorps.gov/wws/publications/insights/pdf/InsightsBackground.pdf> (jun. 16, 2012)
  3. Elliot, D., Shwartz, M., George, R., Haymes, S., Heilmiller, D., Scott, G. (2001). Wind Energy Resource Atlas of the Dominican Republic, Natural Renewable Energy Laboratory.
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  10. 10.0 10.1 Maniatidis, V., Walker, P. (2003). A Review of Rammed Earth Construction, Natural Building Technology Group.
  11. Dorji, J., Thambiratnam, D.P. (2009). "Modelling and Analysis of Infilled Frame Structures Under Seismic Loads." The Open Construction and Building Technology Journal, 3, 119-126.
  12. "Creating Green Communities." <http://www.mariposadrfoundation.org/Creating_Green_Communities.html> (Jun. 16, 2012).
  13. (2011). "Making eco-bricks." <http://bottleschools.org/wiki/Making_%E2%80%9Ceco-bricks%E2%80%9D> (Jun. 16, 2012).
  14. Kutner, Laura (2012). “Trash for Peace: Engaging Children, Youth and Community for a World without Waste.” Children, Youth and Environments, 22(1), 294-303.
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  22. (2001). Details for Conventional Wood Frame Construction, American Forest & Paper Association.
  23. (2011). "What is Corrugated Metal Roofing?" <http://www.corrugatedmetalroofing.net/whatis.html> (Jun. 16, 2012).
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