No edit summary
No edit summary
Line 82: Line 82:
'''Abstract:'''
'''Abstract:'''
Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is demonstrated as a quantitative technique for geochemical analysis. This study demonstrates the applicability of LIBS to bulk elemental analysis of igneous rock powders. LIBS spectra of 100 igneous rocks with highly varying compositions were acquired at 9 m standoff distance under Mars atmospheric conditions. LIBS spectra were modeled using partial least squares regressions to predict major element compositions. A series of comparative tests determined the most effective methodologies for pre-processing of spectral and compositional data, and choice of calibration set. In the best cases, calculated 1−σ errors are 1.6 wt.% SiO2, 1.5 wt.% Al2O3, 0.4 wt.% TiO2, 1.2 wt.% Fe2O3T, 1.6 wt.% MgO, 0.02 wt.% MnO, 1.1 wt.% CaO, 0.5 wt.% Na2O, 0.2 wt.% P2O5, and 0.4 wt.% K2O, with totals near 100%. The largest improvement came as a result of scaling the elemental distributions to equalize the ranges of variability. Optimal predictions for this data set were produced with calibration set compositions input as weight % oxides and not atomic fractions. Predictions were also improved when calibration sets represented the smallest range of compositional variability possible, and completely encompassed the compositional range encountered. Multiple calibration sets relevant to different rock types are preferred over a single all-encompassing calibration set. Baseline removal and transforming spectral data by their first derivative do not improve predictions and can even have negative effects. These results are directly applicable to spectra that will be acquired by the ChemCam experiment on Mars Science Laboratory, but also apply more broadly to terrestrial LIBS applications.
Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is demonstrated as a quantitative technique for geochemical analysis. This study demonstrates the applicability of LIBS to bulk elemental analysis of igneous rock powders. LIBS spectra of 100 igneous rocks with highly varying compositions were acquired at 9 m standoff distance under Mars atmospheric conditions. LIBS spectra were modeled using partial least squares regressions to predict major element compositions. A series of comparative tests determined the most effective methodologies for pre-processing of spectral and compositional data, and choice of calibration set. In the best cases, calculated 1−σ errors are 1.6 wt.% SiO2, 1.5 wt.% Al2O3, 0.4 wt.% TiO2, 1.2 wt.% Fe2O3T, 1.6 wt.% MgO, 0.02 wt.% MnO, 1.1 wt.% CaO, 0.5 wt.% Na2O, 0.2 wt.% P2O5, and 0.4 wt.% K2O, with totals near 100%. The largest improvement came as a result of scaling the elemental distributions to equalize the ranges of variability. Optimal predictions for this data set were produced with calibration set compositions input as weight % oxides and not atomic fractions. Predictions were also improved when calibration sets represented the smallest range of compositional variability possible, and completely encompassed the compositional range encountered. Multiple calibration sets relevant to different rock types are preferred over a single all-encompassing calibration set. Baseline removal and transforming spectral data by their first derivative do not improve predictions and can even have negative effects. These results are directly applicable to spectra that will be acquired by the ChemCam experiment on Mars Science Laboratory, but also apply more broadly to terrestrial LIBS applications.
===[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0584854714000160 Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy expands into industrial applications <ref>Noll, Reinhard, et al. "Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy expands into industrial applications." Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 93 (2014): 41-51.</ref>]===
'''Abstract:'''
This paper presents R&D activities in the field of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for industrial applications and shows novel LIBS systems running in routine operation for inline process control tasks. Starting with a comparison of the typical characteristics of LIBS with XRF and spark-discharge optical emission spectrometry, the principal structure of LIBS machines embedded for inline process monitoring will be presented. A systematic requirement analysis for LIBS systems following Ishikawa's scheme was worked out. Stability issues are studied for laser sources and Paschen-Runge spectrometers as key components for industrial LIBS systems. Examples of industrial applications range from handheld LIBS systems using a fiber laser source, via a set of LIBS machines for inline process control tasks, such as scrap analysis, coal analysis, liquid slag analysis and finally monitoring of drill dust.
===[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0584854713001201 Applications of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for geochemical and environmental analysis: A comprehensive review <ref>Harmon, Russell S., Richard E. Russo, and Richard R. Hark. "Applications of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for geochemical and environmental analysis: A comprehensive review." Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 87 (2013): 11-26.</ref>]===
'''Abstract:'''
Applications of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) have been growing rapidly and continue to be extended to a broad range of materials. This paper reviews recent application of LIBS for the analysis of geological and environmental materials, here termed "GEOLIBS" . Following a summary of fundamentals of the LIBS analytical technique and its potential for chemical analysis in real time, the history of the application of LIBS to the analysis of natural fluids, minerals, rocks, soils, sediments, and other natural materials is described.

Revision as of 08:10, 24 April 2018

Literature

Semi-quantitative Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy for Analysis of Mineral Drill Core [1]

Abstract: An investigation is reported in the use of time-resolved laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) for mineral assaying applications. LIBS has potential for the rapid on-line determination of the major and minor constituents of mineral drill core samples. In this work a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser is used to test as-received lengths of drill core, with remote LIBS signal acquisition via a bare optical fiber bundle coupled to a spectrometer. A novel normalization scheme, based on integrating the total plasma emission, is demonstrated as a method for correction of signal variations due to the uneven surface geometry of rock. Averaged intensities of atomic emission for the elements Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Ni show good linear correlations, with coefficients of R2 = 0.92-0.99, against laboratory assay values. Limitations in the comparison of the results of surface analysis to bulk compositions are discussed, with emphasis on mining applications of LIBS.

Sulfide mineral identification using laser-induced plasma spectroscopy [2]

Abstract: Sulfide minerals in rock samples were identified with laser-induced plasma spectroscopy (LIPS) in the near vacuum ultraviolet spectral region. Reference spectra of pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, barite, calcite and dolomite were applied to classification of minerals in sulfur-bearing drill core samples. On the basis of the results mineral distributions in the sample were estimated. The potential of the LIPS method for in situ analysis is discussed.

Optimization of the spectral data processing in a LIBS simultaneous elemental analysis system [3]

Abstract: An instrumentation variation on laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is described that allows simultaneous determination of all detectable elements using a multiple spectrograph and synchronized, multiple CCD spectral acquisition system. The system is particularly suited to the rapid analysis of heterogeneous materials such as coal and mineral ores. For the analysis of a heterogeneous material the acquisition cycle typically stores 1000 spectra for subsequent filtering and analysis. The incorporation of an effective data analysis methodology has been critical in achieving both accurate and reproducible results in the analysis of powders with the technology. Using naturally occurring gypsum as the optimization matrix, various data analysis techniques have been investigated including: using pulse-to-pulse internal standardisation; data filtering; and spectral deconvolution. The incorporation of normalization of the elemental emission to the total plasma emission intensity has been found to yield the single biggest improvement in accuracy and precision. Spectral deconvolution has been found to yield further improvement and is particularly relevant to the analysis of complex materials such as black coal. The use of pulse-to-pulse intensity normalization has the further benefit of extending the period between instrument recalibration, thus enhancing the ease of use of the device. The benefit of the optimized data analysis methodology is revealed in the determination of eight elemental components of gypsum (Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Al, Si, Ti and K) where a typical absolute analysis accuracy of ±10% is obtained. These results compare favourably to analysis by conventional techniques for these materials. The analysis accuracy and repeatability is further demonstrated by the determination of the concentrations of these elements in a black coal sample.

Chemical mapping of mine waste drill cores with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) for mineral resource exploration [4]

Abstract: Resource estimation for metals in mine tailings and ore deposits requires many samples, usually in the form of drill cores. In order to detect zones of metal enrichment or depletion as well as different lithological zones in such cores, two different core scanning methods were tested on three drill core metres from tailings of a former Pb–Zn mine to obtain chemical information. The results provide an objective basis for further sub-sampling of the taken drill cores and help reduce the amount of samples and therefore the costs for further investigations. For the determination of element concentrations a prototype of a core scanner working with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) was tested and the results were compared to data from a commercially available ITRAX core scanner, working with energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF). Apart from a smooth surface, no complex sample preparation was necessary. Peak intensities of selected elements determined by the two scanners were calibrated by means of linear regression (LR) and partial least squares (PLS) regression with respect to bulk geochemical wavelength-dispersive XRF (WDXRF) analysis results of representative core samples. The application of PLS compensates for matrix effects in LIBS and EDXRF and improves prediction accuracy for most elements, compared to LR. In general, prediction ability of PLS models is slightly higher for EDXRF results than for LIBS. The advantage of the LIBS core scanner is the high spatial resolution and the ability to create two-dimensional (2D) element distribution images as well as phase or mineral distribution maps of the drill core at larger scales. Within the analysed tailing cores metal-rich layers with concentrations up to a maximum of 2.2% Pb + Zn + Cu, could be detected by both core scanning methods. Since these layers are not visible by the human eye, the used core scanning methods are appropriate methods for mineral exploration.

New near-infrared LIBS detection technique for sulfur [5]

Abstract: Sulfur has been detected in a spectral window (around 868 nm) previously unexplored by laser-induced breakdown spectrometry (LIBS), using an ablation laser with an ultraviolet wavelength, a gated detector, and inert ambient gas at a low, controlled pressure. This spectral window enables new-generation gated iCCD cameras to be used, which have adequate quantum efficiencies up to 900 nm. Application of our technique can substantially improve signal strength and thus extends the ability of LIBS to detect many nonmetallic elements.

Multi-element and mineralogical analysis of mineral ores using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy and chemometric analysis [6]

Abstract: In the mining industry the quality and extent of an ore body is determined on the basis of routine assays conducted on drill core and chip samples. Both the elemental composition and the mineralogical classification are important in the characterisation of an ore body for commercial exploitation. Mining industry laboratories typically analyse large numbers of samples from both exploration and mine production environments.

At CSIRO we have explored the application of chemometric methods of analysis in combination with laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) in order to produce routine quantitative analysis of several ore types including iron, nickel and lead/zinc ores. In particular, principal components regression (PCR) has been applied to perform multi-element analysis of iron ore samples from Australia and West Africa. Calibration models for iron (4.8% Av. Relative Error), aluminium (2.2%), silicon (3.7%) and potassium (1.4%) were determined for the Australian ores. In addition phosphorous measurements were made at trace level for samples from West Africa (5.5% Av. Relative Error). LIBS measurements of segments of a nickel drill core were also analysed using PCR.

Mineralogical classification using a combination of LIBS and principal components analysis (PCA) has also been explored. Broad discrimination of ore mineralogy was demonstrated on the basis of the PCA of LIBS spectra in selected emission wavelength bands. The combination of PCA and PCR offers potential for both broad mineralogical and elemental analysis for the minerals industry in exploration and in mine production for the on-line monitoring of ore quality.

Fast mineral identification using elemental LIBS technique [7]

Abstract: Rapid and on-line scanning of rock and drillcore samples gives fast results that can be used to ease the decision-making process during exploration and to guide the future drilling activities without delays. Recently, faster and more efficient ore characterization by combining various laser-based and contactless measurement techniques has drawn tremendous attention in research. However, complexity of different measurement setups and the difference between the sources of light make it non-economic and complicated for industry. Considering the wide range of the elements which can be detected by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy and bearing in mind that LIBS is a very simple spectroscopic technique, the importance of applying LIBS for fast scanning purposes is certified. This study proposes a simple statistical analysis technique leading to mineral identification from the elemental results of LIBS. It is shown that LIBS can be used for calibrating and giving complementary information to other fast scanning techniques like Laser-Induced Fluorescence imaging. The application of the point-wise LIBS measurement technique for online and fast estimation of the minerals abundance from the surface of the rock and drillcore samples is discussed.

Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy for Rapid Elemental Analysis of Drillcore [8]

Abstract: The elemental and mineralogical contents of rock drillcore can be analyzed using a variety of methods. For efficient exploration the characterization of the drillcore should be performed rapidly, so that the further drillings can be better planned and unnecessary costs can be reduced. In this paper, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is studied as a potential rapid on-line method for automated elemental analysis of drillcore. The method is based on a pulsed laser beam that transforms a small volume of the sample into plasma. Individual elements in the plasma have characteristic emission patterns detectable by a spectrometer. Based on the measured spectra the amount of different elements in the sample can be estimated. Drillcore samples from a gold mine in Finland are used as test cases in this study. The LIBS measurements are compared to laboratory analysis results as well as to hyperspectral imaging results obtained in the short-wave infrared region. It is shown that the LIBS method can produce similar elemental concentrations as the laboratory measurements. Moreover, based on the elemental contents, some minerals can be identified and the LIBS information can be used to confirm and complete the results of the hyperspectral analysis. However, the spot size of the LIBS measurement is very small, meaning that a large number of measurements must be taken to reach a representative sampling result for large drillcore volumes. On the other hand, high spatial resolution is easily achieved.

Analysis of gold in rock samples using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy: Matrix and heterogeneity effects [9]

Abstract: We used the laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) technique to determine the concentration of gold in rock samples. 44 reference materials (mostly compressed fine powders) of various chemical compositions, with a quasi-homogeneous concentration of gold varying from 0 to 1000 ppm, were used to establish the calibration curve for the Au I 267.59 nm line. A chemometric study based on the principal component analysis (PCA) showed that ~ 83% of the LIBS spectra variations are attributable to the presence of iron in the samples. Two distinct branches were obtained in the calibration curve: one for Si-rich samples (< 5% of iron) and one for Fe-rich samples (> 13% of iron) with limits of detection of 0.8 ppm and 1.5 ppm, respectively. Different normalization schemes of the gold signal were tested in order to reduce the matrix effects. The LIBS analysis was performed on various mineral samples of practical interest, namely two Si-rich uncompressed ore powders, fine and granular, and three bulk drill cores. The fluctuations in the gold concentration measurements appear to be about two times greater in the granular powder (5–10%) than in the fine one (2–5%). A detailed mapping of the gold concentration on a solid drill core was also performed, revealing multiscale heterogeneity of the gold distribution on the surface of the sample.

Analysis of Minerals and Rocks by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy [10]

Abstract: Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) technique was applied for rapid analysis of major and minor elements composing geological samples including minerals, rocks, and a soil sample. The plasma was produced in air at atmospheric pressure by focusing on the targets a pulsed infrared Nd:YAG laser in open-path configuration. The emitted light in the UV-Vis was analyzed by a compact LIBS system to measure spectral emission lines of Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg, C, Cu, Mn, and Ti. The experimental issues relevant for the analysis of the different samples were investigated by taking into account their peculiar features: drilling through a weathered layer, roughness and grain-size considerations, statistical averaging, and accuracy of the measurements. In this approach, the characterization of the samples was achieved by studying the relative variations of the emission intensities of each element normalized with respect to an internal standard. The present study shows the usefulness of LIBS as a tool for reliable identification of field samples.

Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy for bulk minerals online analyses [11]

Abstract: The purpose of the work was to prove the ability of LIBS to provide on-line analyses for raw ores in field conditions. An industrial LIBS machine was developed and successfully tested for on-belt evaluation of phosphate measuring Mg, Fe, Al, Bone Phosphate Lime (BPL), Insoluble phase and Metal Impurity Ratio (MER) and of coal measuring its ash content. The comparison of LIBS on-line data with control analyses revealed good correlation, which corresponds to the required detection limits and accuracy. With frequent elemental data from a LIBS system, process engineers have the tools to best optimize the process. These processes could be minerals blending and separation to meet customer specifications, monitoring and controlling the efficiency of a minerals process, or a minerals accounting function.

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy analysis of minerals: Carbonates and silicates [12]

Abstract: Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) provides an alternative chemical analytical technique that obviates the issues of sample preparation and sample destruction common to most laboratory-based analytical methods. This contribution explores the capability of LIBS analysis to identify carbonate and silicate minerals rapidly and accurately. Fifty-two mineral samples (18 carbonates, 9 pyroxenes and pyroxenoids, 6 amphiboles, 8 phyllosilicates, and 11 feldspars) were analyzed by LIBS. Two composite broadband spectra (averages of 10 shots each) were calculated for each sample to produce two databases each containing the composite LIBS spectra for the same 52 mineral samples. By using correlation coefficients resulting from the regression of the intensities of pairs of LIBS spectra, all 52 minerals were correctly identified in the database. If the LIBS spectra of each sample were compared to a database containing the other 51 minerals, 65% were identified as a mineral of similar composition from the same mineral family. The remaining minerals were misidentified for two reasons: 1) the mineral had high concentrations of an element not present in the database; and 2) the mineral was identified as a mineral with similar elemental composition from a different family. For instance, the Ca–Mg carbonate dolomite was misidentified as the Ca–Mg silicate diopside. This pilot study suggests that LIBS has promise in mineral identification and in situ analysis of minerals that record geological processes.

Testing a portable laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy system on geological samples [13]

Abstract: This paper illustrates the potentialities of a home-made portable LIBS (laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy) instrument in Earth sciences, more particularly in geochemically recognizing (i) tephra layers in lacustrine sediments and (ii) fossilization processes in ammonites. Abundances for selected lines of Al, Ca, Fe, Ti, Ba and Na were determined in lacustrine chalk sediments of the Jura, where the Laacher See Tephra (LST) layer is recorded. A statistical treatment of elemental maps produced from the section of a sedimentary column containing the LST event allows instrumental conditions to be optimized. Accumulating spectra from close shot positions gives better results than multiplying shots at the same location. A depth profile method was applied to study ammonite fossilization (pyritization, phosphatization) processes. Depth variations of Fe, Ca, Al intensities, and Fe/Ca and Al/Ca ratios provide indications about pyritization, but phosphatization processes cannot be determined with our device.

Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy of Composite Samples:  Comparison of Advanced Chemometrics Methods [14]

Abstract: Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy is used to measure chromium concentration in soil samples. A comparison is carried out between the calibration curve method and two chemometrics techniques:  partial least-squares regression and neural networks. The three quantitative techniques are evaluated in terms of prediction accuracy, prediction precision, and limit of detection. The influence of several parameters specific to each method is studied in detail, as well as the effect of different pretreatments of the spectra. Neural networks are shown to correctly model nonlinear effects due to self-absorption in the plasma and to provide the best results. Subsequently, principal components analysis is used for classifying spectra from two different soils. Then simultaneous prediction of chromium concentration in the two matrixes is successfully performed through partial least-squares regression and neural networks.

Optimization of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for rapid geochemical analysis [15]

Abstract: Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) is demonstrated as a quantitative technique for geochemical analysis. This study demonstrates the applicability of LIBS to bulk elemental analysis of igneous rock powders. LIBS spectra of 100 igneous rocks with highly varying compositions were acquired at 9 m standoff distance under Mars atmospheric conditions. LIBS spectra were modeled using partial least squares regressions to predict major element compositions. A series of comparative tests determined the most effective methodologies for pre-processing of spectral and compositional data, and choice of calibration set. In the best cases, calculated 1−σ errors are 1.6 wt.% SiO2, 1.5 wt.% Al2O3, 0.4 wt.% TiO2, 1.2 wt.% Fe2O3T, 1.6 wt.% MgO, 0.02 wt.% MnO, 1.1 wt.% CaO, 0.5 wt.% Na2O, 0.2 wt.% P2O5, and 0.4 wt.% K2O, with totals near 100%. The largest improvement came as a result of scaling the elemental distributions to equalize the ranges of variability. Optimal predictions for this data set were produced with calibration set compositions input as weight % oxides and not atomic fractions. Predictions were also improved when calibration sets represented the smallest range of compositional variability possible, and completely encompassed the compositional range encountered. Multiple calibration sets relevant to different rock types are preferred over a single all-encompassing calibration set. Baseline removal and transforming spectral data by their first derivative do not improve predictions and can even have negative effects. These results are directly applicable to spectra that will be acquired by the ChemCam experiment on Mars Science Laboratory, but also apply more broadly to terrestrial LIBS applications.

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy expands into industrial applications [16]

Abstract: This paper presents R&D activities in the field of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for industrial applications and shows novel LIBS systems running in routine operation for inline process control tasks. Starting with a comparison of the typical characteristics of LIBS with XRF and spark-discharge optical emission spectrometry, the principal structure of LIBS machines embedded for inline process monitoring will be presented. A systematic requirement analysis for LIBS systems following Ishikawa's scheme was worked out. Stability issues are studied for laser sources and Paschen-Runge spectrometers as key components for industrial LIBS systems. Examples of industrial applications range from handheld LIBS systems using a fiber laser source, via a set of LIBS machines for inline process control tasks, such as scrap analysis, coal analysis, liquid slag analysis and finally monitoring of drill dust.

Applications of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for geochemical and environmental analysis: A comprehensive review [17]

Abstract: Applications of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) have been growing rapidly and continue to be extended to a broad range of materials. This paper reviews recent application of LIBS for the analysis of geological and environmental materials, here termed "GEOLIBS" . Following a summary of fundamentals of the LIBS analytical technique and its potential for chemical analysis in real time, the history of the application of LIBS to the analysis of natural fluids, minerals, rocks, soils, sediments, and other natural materials is described.

  1. Bolger, J. A. "Semi-quantitative laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for analysis of mineral drill core." Applied Spectroscopy 54.2 (2000): 181-189.
  2. Kaski, Saara, Heikki Häkkänen, and Jouko Korppi-Tommola. "Sulfide mineral identification using laser-induced plasma spectroscopy." Minerals engineering 16.11 (2003): 1239-1243.
  3. Body, D., and B. L. Chadwick. "Optimization of the spectral data processing in a LIBS simultaneous elemental analysis system." Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 56.6 (2001): 725-736.
  4. Kuhn, Kerstin, et al. "Chemical mapping of mine waste drill cores with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) and energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) for mineral resource exploration." Journal of Geochemical Exploration 161 (2016): 72-84.
  5. Asimellis, George, Aggelos Giannoudakos, and Michael Kompitsas. "New near-infrared LIBS detection technique for sulfur." Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry 385.2 (2006): 333-337.
  6. Death, D. L., A. P. Cunningham, and L. J. Pollard. "Multi-element and mineralogical analysis of mineral ores using laser induced breakdown spectroscopy and chemometric analysis." Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 64.10 (2009): 1048-1058.
  7. Khajehzadeh, Navid, and Tommi K. Kauppinen. "Fast mineral identification using elemental LIBS technique." IFAC-PapersOnLine 48.17 (2015): 119-124.
  8. Haavisto, Olli, Tommi Kauppinen, and Heikki Häkkänen. "Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for rapid elemental analysis of drillcore." IFAC Proceedings Volumes 46.16 (2013): 87-91.
  9. Rifai, Kheireddine, et al. "Analysis of gold in rock samples using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy: matrix and heterogeneity effects." Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 134 (2017): 33-41.
  10. Díaz Pace, Diego M., et al. "Analysis of minerals and rocks by laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy." Spectroscopy Letters 44.6 (2011): 399-411.
  11. Gaft, M., et al. "Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy for bulk minerals online analyses." Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 62.12 (2007): 1496-1503.
  12. McMillan, Nancy J., et al. "Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy analysis of minerals: carbonates and silicates." Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 62.12 (2007): 1528-1536.
  13. Rakovský, Jozef, et al. "Testing a portable laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy system on geological samples." Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 74 (2012): 57-65.
  14. Sirven, J-B., et al. "Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy of composite samples: comparison of advanced chemometrics methods." Analytical Chemistry 78.5 (2006): 1462-1469.
  15. Tucker, J. M., et al. "Optimization of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for rapid geochemical analysis." Chemical Geology 277.1-2 (2010): 137-148.
  16. Noll, Reinhard, et al. "Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy expands into industrial applications." Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 93 (2014): 41-51.
  17. Harmon, Russell S., Richard E. Russo, and Richard R. Hark. "Applications of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy for geochemical and environmental analysis: A comprehensive review." Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy 87 (2013): 11-26.
Cookies help us deliver our services. By using our services, you agree to our use of cookies.