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===Improvements in life cycle Energy Efficiency and Green House Gas Emissions of Corn Ethanol===
===Improvements in life cycle Energy Efficiency and Green House Gas Emissions of Corn Ethanol===


[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2008.00105.x/epdf]<ref>Adam J. Liska, Haishun S. Yang, Virgil R. Bremer,Terry J. Klopfenstein, Daniel T. Walters, Galen E. Erickson,and Kenneth G. Cassman,"RESEARCH AND ANALYSISImprovements in Life CycleEnergy Efficiency andGreenhouse Gas Emissionsof Corn-Ethanol" </ref>
[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2008.00105.x/epdf Improvements in life cycle Energy Efficiency and Green House Gas Emissions of Corn Ethanol ]<ref>Adam J. Liska, Haishun S. Yang, Virgil R. Bremer,Terry J. Klopfenstein, Daniel T. Walters, Galen E. Erickson,and Kenneth G. Cassman,"RESEARCH AND ANALYSISImprovements in Life CycleEnergy Efficiency andGreenhouse Gas Emissionsof Corn-Ethanol" </ref>
<br/>
<br/>
• Improved technologies to increase energy efficiency and profitability, ethanol production and co-product use
• Improved technologies to increase energy efficiency and profitability, ethanol production and co-product use
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===Improvements in life cycle Energy Efficiency and Green House Gas Emissions of Corn Ethanol===
===Improvements in life cycle Energy Efficiency and Green House Gas Emissions of Corn Ethanol===


[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2008.00105.x/epdf]<ref>Adam J. Liska, Haishun S. Yang, Virgil R. Bremer,Terry J. Klopfenstein, Daniel T. Walters, Galen E. Erickson,and Kenneth G. Cassman,"RESEARCH AND ANALYSISImprovements in Life CycleEnergy Efficiency andGreenhouse Gas Emissionsof Corn-Ethanol" </ref>
[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2008.00105.x/epdf Improvements in life cycle Energy Efficiency and Green House Gas Emissions of Corn Ethanol]<ref>Adam J. Liska, Haishun S. Yang, Virgil R. Bremer,Terry J. Klopfenstein, Daniel T. Walters, Galen E. Erickson,and Kenneth G. Cassman,"RESEARCH AND ANALYSISImprovements in Life CycleEnergy Efficiency andGreenhouse Gas Emissionsof Corn-Ethanol" </ref>
<br/>
<br/>
• Improved technologies to increase energy efficiency and profitability, ethanol production and co-product use
• Improved technologies to increase energy efficiency and profitability, ethanol production and co-product use
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=== Land usage attributed to corn ethanol production in United States: sensitivity to technological advances in corn grain yield, ethanol conversion and co-product utilization===
=== Land usage attributed to corn ethanol production in United States: sensitivity to technological advances in corn grain yield, ethanol conversion and co-product utilization===
[http://biotechnologyforbiofuels.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1754-6834-7-61]<ref>Rita H Mumm,Peter D Goldsmith,Kent D Rausch,Hans H Stein ,"Land usage attributed to corn ethanol production in United States: sensitivity to technological advances in corn grain yield, ethanol conversion and co-product utilization".</ref>
[http://biotechnologyforbiofuels.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1754-6834-7-61 Land usage attributed to corn ethanol production in United States: sensitivity to technological advances in corn grain yield, ethanol conversion and co-product utilization]<ref>Rita H Mumm,Peter D Goldsmith,Kent D Rausch,Hans H Stein ,"Land usage attributed to corn ethanol production in United States: sensitivity to technological advances in corn grain yield, ethanol conversion and co-product utilization".</ref>
<br/>
<br/>
• This paper identifies the key supply variables and understand long term effects and interactions involving corn grain yield, ethanol processing and livestock feeding and how these factors affect the land area attributed to ethanol production.
• This paper identifies the key supply variables and understand long term effects and interactions involving corn grain yield, ethanol processing and livestock feeding and how these factors affect the land area attributed to ethanol production.
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===Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Grain and Corn Stover in the United States===
===Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Grain and Corn Stover in the United States===
[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-008-0054-4#/page-1]<ref> Seungdo Kim,Bruce E. Dale,Robin Jenkins,"Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Grain and Corn Stover in the United States"</ref>
[http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-008-0054-4#/page-1 Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Grain and Corn Stover in the United States]<ref> Seungdo Kim,Bruce E. Dale,Robin Jenkins,"Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Grain and Corn Stover in the United States"</ref>
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<br/>
• To study the effects of continuous corn cultivation of corn grain and corn stover considering the current practices in agriculture
• To study the effects of continuous corn cultivation of corn grain and corn stover considering the current practices in agriculture
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===2008 Energy Balance for Corn-Ethanol Industry===
===2008 Energy Balance for Corn-Ethanol Industry===
[http://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/energy/2008Ethanol_June_final.pdf]<ref>United StatesDepartment of Agriculture. http://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/energy/2008Ethanol_June_final.pdf </ref>
[http://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/energy/2008Ethanol_June_final.pdf 2008 Energy Balance for Corn-Ethanol Industry]<ref>United StatesDepartment of Agriculture. http://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/energy/2008Ethanol_June_final.pdf </ref>
<br/>
<br/>
This is a report by the United States department of agriculture which is based on the  net energy balance of the corn ethanol producers  that was done by conducting a survey of ethanol producing  plants.This report goes on  to investigate about how the net ethanol production has changed from an energy sink to a net energy gain in present. This paper goes on to explain about the about how the inputs and  energy needs has been varying over the past two decades.The data has also been  divided statewise.
This is a report by the United States department of agriculture which is based on the  net energy balance of the corn ethanol producers  that was done by conducting a survey of ethanol producing  plants.This report goes on  to investigate about how the net ethanol production has changed from an energy sink to a net energy gain in present. This paper goes on to explain about the about how the inputs and  energy needs has been varying over the past two decades.The data has also been  divided statewise.
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===Current and potential U.S Corn Stover Supplies===
===Current and potential U.S Corn Stover Supplies===
[https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/aj/abstracts/99/1/1] <ref>R. L. Graham,R. Nelson,J. Sheehanc, R. D. Perlack and L. L. Wright,"Current and potential U.S Corn Stover Supplies"</ref>
[https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/aj/abstracts/99/1/1 Current and potential U.S Corn Stover Supplies] <ref>R. L. Graham,R. Nelson,J. Sheehanc, R. D. Perlack and L. L. Wright,"Current and potential U.S Corn Stover Supplies"</ref>
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<br/>
• This paper gives an idea of Stover production, collection and supply estimation methods subjects to constraints like soil moisture constraints , wind and water erosion constraints,etc.
• This paper gives an idea of Stover production, collection and supply estimation methods subjects to constraints like soil moisture constraints , wind and water erosion constraints,etc.
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===Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower===
===Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower===
[http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-8654-0_15]<ref> David Pimentel, Tad Patzek,"Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower"</ref>
[http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-8654-0_15 Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower]<ref> David Pimentel, Tad Patzek,"Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower"</ref>
<br/>
<br/>
This paper talks about the average input energy required,and cost of production of switchgrass,wood and corn to create biofuels and the approximate amount of non renewable/fossil energy that needs to be expended for their generation.This paper aides in deriving data regarding input energy and output energy of the various processes.
This paper talks about the average input energy required,and cost of production of switchgrass,wood and corn to create biofuels and the approximate amount of non renewable/fossil energy that needs to be expended for their generation.This paper aides in deriving data regarding input energy and output energy of the various processes.
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===(1)The 2001 Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol  And (2)The energy balance of corn ethanol: An update===
===(1)The 2001 Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol  And (2)The energy balance of corn ethanol: An update===
[http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/pdfs/net_energy_balance.pdf]<ref>Hosein Shapouri,"The 2001 Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol"
[http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/news/pdfs/net_energy_balance.pdf Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol]<ref>Hosein Shapouri,"The 2001 Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol"


This report gives  an idea of the net energy balances of corn ethanol production with reference to  
This report gives  an idea of the net energy balances of corn ethanol production with reference to  
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===Biomass Supply From Corn Residues:    Estimates and Critical Review of Procedures===
===Biomass Supply From Corn Residues:    Estimates and Critical Review of Procedures===
[http://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/energy/Biomass%20Supply%20From%20Corn%20Residues-Nov-2012.pdf]<ref>USDA,http://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/energy/Biomass%20Supply%20From%20Corn%20Residues-Nov-2012.pdf </ref>
[http://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/energy/Biomass%20Supply%20From%20Corn%20Residues-Nov-2012.pdf Biomass Supply From Corn Residues:    Estimates and Critical Review of Procedures]<ref>USDA,http://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/energy/Biomass%20Supply%20From%20Corn%20Residues-Nov-2012.pdf </ref>
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<br/>
• This paper gives a  good picture about how the Stover output and costs are calculated.  
• This paper gives a  good picture about how the Stover output and costs are calculated.  
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===Agricultural Statistics===  
===Agricultural Statistics===  
[http://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Ag_Statistics/]
[http://www.nass.usda.gov/Publications/Ag_Statistics/ Agricultural Statistics]
"Agricultural Statistics is published each year to meet the diverse need for a reliable reference book on agricultural production, supplies, consumption, facilities, costs, and returns."
"Agricultural Statistics is published each year to meet the diverse need for a reliable reference book on agricultural production, supplies, consumption, facilities, costs, and returns."
This is a good source to study the trends in corn crop through the last decade
This is a good source to study the trends in corn crop through the last decade




===Energy Viability of photovoltaic Systems==
===Energy Viability of photo-voltaic Systems==
[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421500000872]<ref>E.A Alsema,E Nieuwlaar,"Energy Viability of photovoltaic Systems"</ref>
[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421500000872 Energy Viability of photo-voltaic Systems]<ref>E.A Alsema,E Nieuwlaar,"Energy Viability of photovoltaic Systems"</ref>
<br/>
<br/>


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===PV Watts Calculator-NREL website===
===PV Watts Calculator-NREL website===
[http://pvwatts.nrel.gov/]<ref>NREL,http://pvwatts.nrel.gov/ </ref>
[http://pvwatts.nrel.gov/ PV Watts Calculator]<ref>NREL,http://pvwatts.nrel.gov/ </ref>
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<br/>
This is a tool that has been developed by the NREL  and  is used to “estimate  the energy production and cost of energy of grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) energy systems throughout the world. It allows homeowners, small building owners, installers and manufacturers to easily develop estimates of the performance of potential PV installations” by entering the system details like climate data ,PV module information.
This is a tool that has been developed by the NREL  and  is used to “estimate  the energy production and cost of energy of grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) energy systems throughout the world. It allows homeowners, small building owners, installers and manufacturers to easily develop estimates of the performance of potential PV installations” by entering the system details like climate data ,PV module information.
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===Land-Use Requirements for Solar Power Plants in the United States===  
===Land-Use Requirements for Solar Power Plants in the United States===  
    
    
[http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/56290.pdf]<ref>NREL,http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/56290.pdf </ref>
[http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/56290.pdf Land-Use Requirements for Solar Power Plants in the United States]<ref>NREL,http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/56290.pdf </ref>
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<br/>
• This is a document report released by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory which discusses about the land requirements for the different installations. This report gives a fair idea of the total area usage, system configurations and capacity and electricity generation.
• This is a document report released by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory which discusses about the land requirements for the different installations. This report gives a fair idea of the total area usage, system configurations and capacity and electricity generation.
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===Life Cycle Assessment of photo-voltaic electricity generation===
===Life Cycle Assessment of photo-voltaic electricity generation===
[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544207002137]<ref>A. Stoppato,"Life Cycle Assessment of photo-voltaic electricity generation"
[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360544207002137 Life Cycle Assessment of photo-voltaic electricity generation]<ref>A. Stoppato,"Life Cycle Assessment of photo-voltaic electricity generation"


• Discusses about the net mass and energy flow right from production to final assembling the panel. The net electricity production by the panel is also captured to evaluate the total payback time  and potential carbon dioxide mitigation.
• Discusses about the net mass and energy flow right from production to final assembling the panel. The net electricity production by the panel is also captured to evaluate the total payback time  and potential carbon dioxide mitigation.
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===Energy Viability of photovoltaic Systems===
===Energy Viability of photovoltaic Systems===
[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421500000872]<ref>EA Alsema, E Nieuwlaar,"Energy Viability of photovoltaic Systems", Energy policy, 2000 - Elsevier </ref>
[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421500000872 Energy Viability of photovoltaic Systems]<ref>EA Alsema, E Nieuwlaar,"Energy Viability of photovoltaic Systems", Energy policy, 2000 - Elsevier </ref>
<br/>
<br/>
• This paper talks about the different processes involved in manufacturing, processing and assembling of the solar panels.
• This paper talks about the different processes involved in manufacturing, processing and assembling of the solar panels.
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===Iowa energy centre- Solar calculations===
===Iowa energy centre- Solar calculations===
[http://www.iowaenergycenter.org/solar-calculator-tool/]<ref> Iowa energy centre- http://www.iowaenergycenter.org/solar-calculator-tool/ </ref>
[http://www.iowaenergycenter.org/solar-calculator-tool/ Iowa energy centre- Solar calculations]<ref> Iowa energy centre- http://www.iowaenergycenter.org/solar-calculator-tool/ </ref>
  This web page is hosted by Iowa energy center and has an online solar calculator that calculates the  data for Iowa county  based on the chosen configuration and location and irradiation levels.
  This web page is hosted by Iowa energy center and has an online solar calculator that calculates the  data for Iowa county  based on the chosen configuration and location and irradiation levels.
This data could prove useful for our project  for PV modelling considering a solar farm in Iowa  .
This data could prove useful for our project  for PV modelling considering a solar farm in Iowa  .


===Solar Statistics- Solar Energy industries Association===
===Solar Statistics- Solar Energy industries Association===
[http://www.seia.org/]
[http://www.seia.org/ Solar Statistics]


This site serves as a good source to collect statistics for out project .It gives us an idea of the  current solar projects the locations installed and the capacity of these plants and the type of systems used.  
This site serves as a good source to collect statistics for out project .It gives us an idea of the  current solar projects the locations installed and the capacity of these plants and the type of systems used.  





Revision as of 11:37, 9 February 2016

Sample photo caption.
Make sure you are including the full citation for your documents in your lit. review with a link.

Summary

  • To stack up the case of solar photo-voltaic against the energy derived from biofuels.

Goals

  • Exergetic comparison of PV cells and Biofuel energy.
  • Examining the prime and most efficient biofuel crop.
  • Understanding the agronomic involved.
  • Maximizing the exergetic output of PV cells.
  • Investigating different techniques of making PV cells more affordable.

A Review on Biofuels

Net energy from cellulose ethanol from switchgrass

Source: Schmer, Marty R., et al. "Net energy from cellulose ethanol from switchgrass" Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105.2 (2008): 464-469.

• Evaluation of switchgrass as a biofuel.

• Concerns –

1)energy efficiency and economic feasibility
2)Investigated agricultural input cost
3)biomass yield
4)estimated ethanol output
5)greenhouse gas emission
6)net energy results

• Findings

1)Switchgrass produces 540% more renewable energy than nonrenewable energy consumed.
2)94% lower greenhouse emission than gasoline.

• They considered fields on 10 farms for net energy economic evaluation so that they can eradicated the discrepancies that occur when small with similar agricultural inputs are under consideration.

• Study considers various agronomic practices

• States that biofuel from switchgrass produces 13.1MJ of energy for every MJ of petroleum input.

TAKE AWAYS

1)This paper will not only build the case for switchgrass to be used as a biofuel but will also help us what kind of location and what suitable agronomic practices must be followed to get the maximum yield. 
2)Location of the farm was found out to be one of the deciding factor for the amount of ethanol yield ye can extract.

Energy cost of rapeseed based biodiesel as alternative energy in china

Source: Chen, H., and G. Q. Chen."Energy cost of rapeseed based biodiesel as alternative energy in china" Renewable Energy 36.5 (2011): 1374-1378.

• Evaluating energy cost of rapeseed as biofuel.

• Cost can be divided into 4 categories

1)Crop production
2)Transportation
3)Industrial conversion
4)Wastewater management

• This paper stated that 1ha of land produces 1.5 ton of biofuel. This comes to around 20 GJ of energy left after taking into factor the energy used in the production.

• It focuses on an in-depth analysis of rapeseed as a biofuel.

• It gives insights on how biofuel is processed from the crop harvest.

• Detailed classification of energy cost of each and every element that goes into making the final usable biofuel.

• Findings

1)Agricultural produce contributes to the lion share of total energy cost.
2)Rapeseed biofuel has a negative energy return owing to the low production of crop.

TAKE AWAYS

1)Considering the areas where the average yield of crop is more.
2)Less nitrogen based fertilizers as they account for the highest share of cost for the agricultural production.
3)We should consider locations where the crop is abundantly available or there is some scope for increasing production and the energy input for agricultural produce is minimum.

Energy balances for biogas and solid biofuel production from industrial hemp

Source: Prade, Thomas, Sven-Erik Svensson, and Jan Erik Mattsson. "Energy balances for biogas and solid biofuel production from industrial hemp" Biomass and bioenergy 40 (2012): 36-52.

• Paper states that hemp has higher energy yield than any other crop to obtain biofuel.

• It is less susceptible to pest infection which in turn reduces the overall input cost.

• 4 cases were considered

1)Combined heat and power from spring harvested baled hemp: Combustion heat is used for generating electricity and residential heating.
2)Heat from spring harvested briquetted hemp: Combustion heat is used for small scale residential heating.
3)CHP
4)Vehicle fuel autumn harvested chopped and ensiled hemp: Depicts biofuel used in vehicles.

• The first case was found out to be most efficient.

• The study found out that the maximum chunk of input energy that goes into producing the final hemp biofuel is for processing the biofuel.

• Advantages are less pesticide requirement, weed resistant, crop rotation is possible.

TAKE AWAYS

1)Areas where probability of pest infection is more, hemp cultivation is desirable and economic than other crops.
2)Net energy yield of hemp is also more than most of the crops.
3)Less maintenance.

Improvements in Life Cycle Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Corn-Ethanol

Source: Liska, Adam J., et al. "Improvements in Life Cycle Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Corn-Ethanol" Journal of Industrial Ecology 13.1 (2009): 58-74.

• This paper focuses on the greenhouse gas emission from the corn based biofuel.

• It also discusses how in recent times the net corn production has increased and new ways have been found out to produce more energy efficient biofuel.

• They performed energy life cycle simulation and greenhouse gases assessments.

• The net energy ratio was found out to be ranging from a minimum of 1.29 to a maximum of 2.23.

TAKE AWAYS

1)In the pursuit of finding the best crop for biofuel, an improved life cycle energy efficiency is essential.
2)New technological advancements help us to reduce the energy we put into “seed-to-fuel” cycle hence improving the net energy ratio.
3)Improved version of biofuel indicates towards less greenhouse gas emission.

Camelina Derived jet fuel and diesel: Sustainable advanced biofuels

Source: Shonnard, David R., Larry Williams, and Tom N. Kalnes. "Camelina Derived jet fuel and diesel: Sustainable advanced biofuels" Environmental Progress & Sustainable Energy 29.3 (2010): 382-392.

• Builds the case for camelina.

• The paper discusses the biofuel alternatives to jet fuel and diesel.

• It also evaluates the life cycle greenhouse gas emission and compares it with conventional jet fuel and diesel.

• It’s grown without giving much attention as it can sustain extreme temperature and doesn’t require much inputs unlike other plants.

• Biofuel proved to be very cost effective when greenhouse gases are considered as a net minimum saving of about 67% was noted when using camelina based fuel.

• It was concluded that even though camelina based fuel was cost effective and reduced emission to a great extent, its performance and energy efficiency was almost the same when compared to conventional fuels.

TAKE AWAYS

Camelina poses a strong competition to other biofuel crops as the energy requirement for its life cycle is considerably less keeping its energy output the same as the conventional fuel.


A life cycle assessment of biodiesel production from winter rape grown in southern Europe

Source: Gasol, Carles M., et al. "A life cycle assessment of biodiesel production from winter rape grown in southern Europe" Biomass and Bioenergy 40 (2012): 71-81.

• The paper states the benefit of biodiesel over diesel in terms of

1)Abiotic Depletion
2)Photochemical oxidation
3)Global warming potential

• This is a life cycle assessment of rapeseed in terms of different climate and net crop yield.

• The highest energy consumed during the life cycle is in transesterification and oil extraction which was found to be 25.22% and 21.30% respectively.

• The study found out that biofuel has a less impact on abiotic depletion and global warming potential.

• Putting the coproducts (glycerin) to use again reduces stress on the environment.

TAKE AWAYS

The reusability of the byproducts.


Exergetic evaluation of biomass gasification

Source: Ptasinski, Krzysztof J., Mark J. Prins, and Anke Pierik. "Exergetic evaluation of biomass gasification" Energy 32.4 (2007): 568-574.

• This paper focuses on biofuel which is in gaseous form.

• It states that most of the energy is lost during the process of gasification and hence wants to make this process more efficient.

• It suggests that by drying the gas may increase the exergetic value of the gaseous biofuel.

• It states in order to reach the maximum efficiency of gas biofuel the right amount of oxygen must be added to the gasifier.

• The data suggests that the exergic value of vegetable oil is greater than other biofuel sources like straw, wood, grass, sludge, manure.

TAKE AWAYS

1)Gasification of biofuel releases some energy into thin air while the process of gasification is in process.
2)This is not at all desirable when dealing with biofuels.


Improvements in life cycle Energy Efficiency and Green House Gas Emissions of Corn Ethanol

Improvements in life cycle Energy Efficiency and Green House Gas Emissions of Corn Ethanol [1]
• Improved technologies to increase energy efficiency and profitability, ethanol production and co-product use • Use of thermo-compressors for condensing steam ,increase reuse, thermal oxidizers for combustion of volatile organic compounds and efficient utilization of waste heat • Estimating the values of co products formed – value analysis by substitution of value of the co-product with another component that is needed in their production .This method is called substitution method. • Corn production data retrieved from national Agricultural Statistics • The various energy values considered -thermal energy, fertilizer use, seed, drying, electricity, and conversion yield, total ethanol yield, coproduct credit- to estimate the performance and greenhouse gas emissions. • The effects of climate, soil quality and access to irrigation is discussed. • The use of nitrogen fertilizer and the required inputs are discussed along with the effect of tillage and agricultural practices to improve the efficiency.

This paper helps us in understanding the different input and output factors that need to be considered when evaluating the impact of biofuel.


Improvements in life cycle Energy Efficiency and Green House Gas Emissions of Corn Ethanol

Improvements in life cycle Energy Efficiency and Green House Gas Emissions of Corn Ethanol[2]
• Improved technologies to increase energy efficiency and profitability, ethanol production and co-product use • Use of thermo-compressors for condensing steam ,increase reuse, thermal oxidizers for combustion of volatile organic compounds and efficient utilization of waste heat • Estimating the values of co products formed – value analysis by substitution of value of the co-product with another component that is needed in their production .This method is called substitution method. • Corn production data retrieved from national Agricultural Statistics • The various energy values considered -thermal energy, fertilizer use, seed, drying, electricity, and conversion yield, total ethanol yield, coproduct credit- to estimate the performance and greenhouse gas emissions. • The effects of climate, soil quality and access to irrigation is discussed. • The use of nitrogen fertilizer and the required inputs are discussed along with the effect of tillage and agricultural practices to improve the efficiency.

This paper helps us in understanding the different input and output factors that need to be considered when evaluating the impact of biofuel.


Land usage attributed to corn ethanol production in United States: sensitivity to technological advances in corn grain yield, ethanol conversion and co-product utilization

Land usage attributed to corn ethanol production in United States: sensitivity to technological advances in corn grain yield, ethanol conversion and co-product utilization[3]
• This paper identifies the key supply variables and understand long term effects and interactions involving corn grain yield, ethanol processing and livestock feeding and how these factors affect the land area attributed to ethanol production. • This papers also explores the net efficiency considering different plant configurations. A comparison study has been done to study the trends of the crops through the years.


Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Grain and Corn Stover in the United States

Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Grain and Corn Stover in the United States[4]
• To study the effects of continuous corn cultivation of corn grain and corn stover considering the current practices in agriculture • The conditions affecting the performance of the corn grains. • To study the environmental effects the corn production has two cropping systems have been considered-(1) crop produced for the grain (2) corn grown for Stover. • Impact assessment was done in the fertilizer(N,P,K ) herbicides, insecticides, lime, diesel, gasoline, LPG, electricity usage . • Sensitivity assessment of the two systems were done in terms of nitrogen usage and ammonia loss. • The effect of no tillage and tilling the fields were studied and the results indicate that no tillage practices reduce the total fossil energy GHG emissions by about 50% • The results indicate that corn stover has a lower impact on the environment than the corn grain in terms of total fossil energy,greengouse gases acidification. Planting winter crops and transitioning to a no tillage farming practice are ways to reduce these nitrogen losses from the soil.


2008 Energy Balance for Corn-Ethanol Industry

2008 Energy Balance for Corn-Ethanol Industry[5]
This is a report by the United States department of agriculture which is based on the net energy balance of the corn ethanol producers that was done by conducting a survey of ethanol producing plants.This report goes on to investigate about how the net ethanol production has changed from an energy sink to a net energy gain in present. This paper goes on to explain about the about how the inputs and energy needs has been varying over the past two decades.The data has also been divided statewise. This data is useful to understand how the energy calculations are done and approximately what the energy needs of the system would be on an average.

Current and potential U.S Corn Stover Supplies

Current and potential U.S Corn Stover Supplies [6]
• This paper gives an idea of Stover production, collection and supply estimation methods subjects to constraints like soil moisture constraints , wind and water erosion constraints,etc. • Grain to stover mass – 1:1 • Constraints in stover collection 1. Equipment constraints:amount left in the fiels is a function of equipment used to collect the stover and condition of stover atleast 25% left in the field 2. Soil Moisture Constraints:if rainfed agriculture all stover to be left on the field to maintain soil moisture for the next crop. 3. Water and wind erosion constraints • Collectable stover = total stover- max constraints • Discusses different tilling practices

Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower

Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower[7]
This paper talks about the average input energy required,and cost of production of switchgrass,wood and corn to create biofuels and the approximate amount of non renewable/fossil energy that needs to be expended for their generation.This paper aides in deriving data regarding input energy and output energy of the various processes.


(1)The 2001 Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol And (2)The energy balance of corn ethanol: An update

Net Energy Balance of Corn EthanolCite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag
• This paper gives a good picture about how the Stover output and costs are calculated. • This also gives a clearer picture of the supply- demand of corn bio-crop and related parameters used in the estimations and calculations. • The author goes on to explain about the handling costs ,farm costs,plant costs and net value of the corn stover. This paper is useful to understand the related functions, energy and money that need to be spent on the corn crop growing farms.

Agricultural Statistics

Agricultural Statistics "Agricultural Statistics is published each year to meet the diverse need for a reliable reference book on agricultural production, supplies, consumption, facilities, costs, and returns." This is a good source to study the trends in corn crop through the last decade


=Energy Viability of photo-voltaic Systems

Energy Viability of photo-voltaic Systems[8]

• This paper talks about the different processes involved in manufacturing, processing and assembling of the solar panels. • Factors included in the calculation of payback time and carbon dioxide emissions

PV Watts Calculator-NREL website

PV Watts Calculator[9]
This is a tool that has been developed by the NREL and is used to “estimate the energy production and cost of energy of grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) energy systems throughout the world. It allows homeowners, small building owners, installers and manufacturers to easily develop estimates of the performance of potential PV installations” by entering the system details like climate data ,PV module information. This tool is useful for this project to estimate net solar output energy and possible losses at the chosen location of installation.


Land-Use Requirements for Solar Power Plants in the United States

Land-Use Requirements for Solar Power Plants in the United States[10]
• This is a document report released by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory which discusses about the land requirements for the different installations. This report gives a fair idea of the total area usage, system configurations and capacity and electricity generation. • This document also has data regarding the PV Projects within the US and gives data relating to 1. Total capacity in MW 2. Total area in acres 3. Direct area in acres 4. Solar Tracking type and module efficiency This report is a good source of data for our project.

Life Cycle Assessment of photo-voltaic electricity generation

Life Cycle Assessment of photo-voltaic electricity generationCite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag
• This paper talks about the different processes involved in manufacturing, processing and assembling of the solar panels. • Factors included in the calculation of payback time and carbon dioxide emissions

Iowa energy centre- Solar calculations

Iowa energy centre- Solar calculations[11]

This web page is hosted by Iowa energy center and has an online solar calculator that calculates the   data for Iowa county  based on the chosen configuration and location and irradiation levels.

This data could prove useful for our project for PV modelling considering a solar farm in Iowa .

Solar Statistics- Solar Energy industries Association

Solar Statistics

This site serves as a good source to collect statistics for out project .It gives us an idea of the current solar projects the locations installed and the capacity of these plants and the type of systems used.


Evaluation of Solar energy as a potential source

Annual exergy evaluation on photovoltaic-thermal hybrid collector

Source: Fujisawa, Toru, and Tatsuo Tani. "Annual exergy evaluation on photovoltaic-thermal hybrid collector" Solar energy materials and solar cells 47.1 (1997): 135-148.

• Makes a more complete use of solar energy.

• It extracts electric as well as thermal power from solar energy.

• Exergy based comparison and evaluation was done as electric and thermal energy has different units associated with them.

• The paper discusses the problem associated with thermal energy as it requires a certain temperature difference so that we can extract that energy to do some work.

• 3 cases were considered-

1)A simple PV module
2)A PV/T module (Hybrid Cover Less)
3)A PV/T module (Hybrid Single Cover)

• Monthly and annual data were obtained for daily and seasonal variations in solar radiations.

• Findings :

1)It was found out that the exergy gain for electrical energy was high although the exergy gain for thermal energy was much smaller.
2)Electrical exergy was in the order of 
   1)Coverless PV/T
   2)Simple PV
   3)Single Cover PV/T
3)Thermal exergy was in the order of 
   1)Single Cover PV/T
   2)Coverless PV/t

TAKE AWAYS

1)Formulation to find the total exergy.
2)Heat and power generation characteristics.
3)Single covered PV/T should be used as they have high exergy.


Case Studies of large-scale PV systems distributed around desert area of the world

Source: Kurokawa, Kosuke, et al. "Case Studies of large-scale PV systems distributed around desert area of the world" Solar energy materials and solar cells 47.1 (1997): 189-196.

• The author challenges the present conventional energy sources which have a lion share in the energy market with large scale PV establishments.

• Major factors governing a PV power plant design were considered.

TAKE AWAYS

1)PV power plant design
2)Size optimizations 
3)Cost estimations


Cost reduction in PV manufacturing and Impact on grid-connected and building-integrated markets

Source: Maycock, Paul D. "Cost reduction in PV manufacturing and Impact on grid-connected and building-integrated markets" Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells 47.1 (1997): 37-45.

• This paper suggests different ways to limit the pricing of PV systems to a lower level.

• Increased size of the plant reduces the cost per watt of energy.

• It advocates the use of thin film modules and manufacturing of amorphous silicon for a better cost to efficiency ratio.

• Some of the worlds’ governments have cash subsidies of about 50% in practice.

TAKE AWAYS

1)Roll-to-roll continuous process plants should be adopted rather than batch process plants.
2)Government subsidies makes PV plant cheap.
3)Making use of thin film amorphous silicon.
4)Establishing PV plant in more than one Biofuel growing crop field.


Low cost solar module manufacturing

Source: Little, Roger G., et al. "Low cost solar module manufacturing" Solar energy materials and solar cells 47.1 (1997): 251-257.

• The burgeoning solar industry has been expanding many folds which has made the manufacturers to adopt numerous ways to make PV cells affordable.

• PV cells manufacturers have developed several cost cutting ways which will help them against the growing competition.

• This paper gives stress on high automation and a higher throughput capacity of module manufacturing and fabrication plants.

TAKE AWAYS

1)Similar output cells clubbed together to form a module with higher efficiency.
2)An assembler developed by Spire can make series cell soldering a much faster process hence saving time and money.
3)Larger area cells helps in cost reduction.

Photovoltaic systems: A cost competitive option to supply energy to off-grid agricultural communities in arid regions

Source: Qoaider, Louy, and Dieter Steinbrecht. "Photovoltaic systems: A cost competitive option to supply energy to off-grid agricultural communities in arid regions" Applied Energy 87.2 (2010): 427-435.

• In order to connect rural and remote inhabited locations to the power grid, the generating public utility needs to build a network of electrification which seems impractical as far as the cost parameters are concerned.

• The author compares

1)A diesel generator set
2)A PV system

• Procedure conducted

1)Identifying the solar energy potential and the demand.

2)Optimizing the PV cell size to accommodate the demand of entire locality.

3)Comparing the life cycle cost of both systems.

TAKE AWAYS

1)Decentralized power generation.
2)Electrification of such locations are feasible only when the generation is cheap.
3)Although the energy cost of PV electricity is lower, PV was found out to be more capital centric which puts us in a position where we need to find out ways to make the manufacturing and set up cost a couple of notches lower.
4)When set up in locations of high solar irradiations its profitability increases manifolds.

Energy and Exergy analysis of photovoltaic-thermal collector with and without glass cover

Source: Chow, Tin Tai, et al. "Energy and Exergy analysis of photovoltaic-thermal collector with and without glass cover" Applied Energy 86.3 (2009): 310-316.

• This paper gives a thermodynamics viewpoint on the PV/T collector module.

• PV/T cell with glass cover has a greater total energy absorption while it lowers the photovoltaic efficiency owing to the reduced absorption and increased reflection of irradiation.

• If the thermal energy extraction is secondary with less or little importance then the PV/T should be without cover.

TAKE AWAYS

1)The factors working in favor of  PV/T without cover are
    1)PV cell efficiency
    2)Packing factor
    3)Water mass to collector area
    4)Wind velocity
2)The factors working in favor of PV/T with cover
    1)Ambient Temperature

Low cost processing of CIGS thin film solar cells

Source: Kaelin, M., D. Rudmann, and A. N. Tiwari. "Low cost processing of CIGS thin film solar cells" Solar Energy 77.6 (2004): 749-756.

• This paper discusses the use of thin layer CIGS (Copper Indium Gallium Selenide) for low cost PV module.

• The machinery required for such kind of module manufacturing is also low as compared to conventional silicon wafer.

• The following properties of CIGS were highlighted

1)High optical absorption
2)Tunable bandgap

• The process manufacturing process of CIGS PV module is explained and it’s also stated that this process can be set up as a roll-to-roll process which in turn decreases its production cost.

TAKE AWAYS

1)CIGS PV module stacks up a very bold case for itself even though the efficiency is compromised.
2)If cost is the primary constraint then the use of CIGS would prove vital.
3)Or even a hybrid combination of silicon wafer and CIGS module would do a great job in cutting down the cost to a great extent.

Photovoltaic technology: The case for thin-film solar cells

Source: Kaelin, M., D. Rudmann, and A. N. Tiwari. "Photovoltaic technology: The case for thin-film solar cells" Solar Energy 77.6 (2004): 749-756.

• This paper is based on the argument that although the prices of PV cells have gone down with a substantial increase in the our reliability on PV cells, the cost associated with silicone wafer will eventually go up owing to the availability of limited silicon resources.

• Silicone thin film cells are made by depositing silicon which is in its gas phase on a low cost substrate.

• It builds up the case for use of amorphous silicon vs crystalline silicon.

• Amorphous silicon has low deposition temperatures which enables us to use glass (low cost substrate) as a substrate.

TAKE AWAYS

1)Use of polycrystalline wafers instead of conventional monocrystalline could prove beneficial in cutting down cost but the efficiency would be compromised.
2)The thickness of thin film cells being a few microns, this terminates the very problem which was the limited availability of silicon.
3)Amorphous silicon has a higher absorption coefficient than crystalline silicon.

Life cycle assessment and energy pay-back time of advanced photovoltaic modules: CdTe and CIS compared to poly-Si

Source: Raugei, Marco, Silvia Bargigli, and Sergio Ulgiati. "Life cycle assessment and energy pay-back time of advanced photovoltaic modules: CdTe and CIS compared to poly-Si" Energy 32.8 (2007): 1310-1318.

• This paper stacks up the case for CdTe and CIS PV module against the conventional polycrystalline silicon.

• The efficiencies were found out to be in the order of:

1)CdTe: 9%
2)CIS: 11%
3)Poly-Si: 14%

• CdTe and CIS based PV modules are found out to be toxic in nature. Hence their use and disposable must be done in a reliable manner.

TAKE AWAYS

1)Thin film operate at higher efficiencies in overcast condition.
2)Overall performance was found out ot be competitive with poly-Si based PV module.
3)The choice of CdTe or CIS type PV module will decrease the capital cost but would increase the maintenance and disposal cost.

Cumulative exergy extraction from the natural environment: A comprehensive life cycle impact assessment method for resource accounting

Source: Dewulf, Jo, et al. "Cumulative exergy extraction from the natural environment: A comprehensive life cycle impact assessment method for resource accounting" Environmental science & technology 41.24 (2007): 8477-8483.

• This article talks about the total exergy derived from nature which is used to generate power in the form we can make use of.

TAKE AWAYS

The exergy data of different resources can be of very vital use in our project. 



  1. Adam J. Liska, Haishun S. Yang, Virgil R. Bremer,Terry J. Klopfenstein, Daniel T. Walters, Galen E. Erickson,and Kenneth G. Cassman,"RESEARCH AND ANALYSISImprovements in Life CycleEnergy Efficiency andGreenhouse Gas Emissionsof Corn-Ethanol"
  2. Adam J. Liska, Haishun S. Yang, Virgil R. Bremer,Terry J. Klopfenstein, Daniel T. Walters, Galen E. Erickson,and Kenneth G. Cassman,"RESEARCH AND ANALYSISImprovements in Life CycleEnergy Efficiency andGreenhouse Gas Emissionsof Corn-Ethanol"
  3. Rita H Mumm,Peter D Goldsmith,Kent D Rausch,Hans H Stein ,"Land usage attributed to corn ethanol production in United States: sensitivity to technological advances in corn grain yield, ethanol conversion and co-product utilization".
  4. Seungdo Kim,Bruce E. Dale,Robin Jenkins,"Life Cycle Assessment of Corn Grain and Corn Stover in the United States"
  5. United StatesDepartment of Agriculture. http://www.usda.gov/oce/reports/energy/2008Ethanol_June_final.pdf
  6. R. L. Graham,R. Nelson,J. Sheehanc, R. D. Perlack and L. L. Wright,"Current and potential U.S Corn Stover Supplies"
  7. David Pimentel, Tad Patzek,"Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower"
  8. E.A Alsema,E Nieuwlaar,"Energy Viability of photovoltaic Systems"
  9. NREL,http://pvwatts.nrel.gov/
  10. NREL,http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/56290.pdf
  11. Iowa energy centre- http://www.iowaenergycenter.org/solar-calculator-tool/
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