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| [[Airline|Airlines]] can [[marketing|differentiate themselves]], and [[consumer|consumers]] can [[consumer behaviour|select airlines]], based on a number of [[Ethical consumerism|ethical issues]]. For example, consumers might express their displeasure for a country by [[Boycott|boycotting]] its national airline. This article confines itself to the issue of [[Global warming|climate change]]. Potential air travellers might respond to the issue of climate change by travelling less and/or by using other [[Mode of transport|modes of transport]] which are perceived as being more [[Fuel_efficiency_in_transportation|efficient]] (such as [[Rail transport|rail]]). This article further confines itself to the steps being taken by some airlines to offer services that are more ‘climate friendly’ and the response of consumers to those services.
| | {{db-move|User:D.Wardle/Air travel, climate change, and green consumerism|I foolishly began composing this article in main namespace. I left it overnight in an incomplete state so new page patrol put a redirect over the top of it. I've now completed the article in my user space and I think the completed article is ready to be moved to main namespace. Some further details can be found on my talkpage --- [[User:D.Wardle|D.Wardle]] ([[User talk:D.Wardle|talk]]) 03:23, 5 February 2009 (UTC).}} |
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| | | #REDIRECT[[Ethical consumerism]] |
| == Three approaches to climate change ==
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| Air travel is suspected of contributing significantly to climate change through [[Aviation and the environment|a number of mechanisms]] (not just [[Greenhouse gas|greenhouse gas emissions]]). Individual airlines and air travellers are currently utilizing/exploring three approaches to reduce their impact on climate:
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| * [[Carbon offset|'''''Carbon offsetting:''''']] Paying others to achieve a counterbalancing effect on climate through activities outside the air transport sector. Note that the effectiveness of carbon offsetting is criticised.
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| * Reducing air travel’s consumption of [[Fossil fuel|fossil fuels]] (air travel’s contribution to [[IPCC list of greenhouse gases|well-mixed greenhouse gases]] is completely dominated by the emission of [[carbon dioxide]] from burning fossil-derived [[Aviation fuel|aviation fuels]]<ref>M.V.Chester, [http://repositories.cdlib.org/its/ds/UCB-ITS-DS-2008-1/ ''Life-cycle Environmental Inventory of Passenger Transportation in the United States''] (UCB-ITS-DS-2008-1, Fall 2008).</ref><sup>,</sup><ref>AMR Corporation, [http://www.aa.com/content/images/amrcorp/amrerr.pdf ''Environmental Responsibility Report'' (3MB)] 2007.</ref>). Two ways in which this can be done are:
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| ** '''''Improve [[Fuel_efficiency_in_transportation|fuel efficiency]].'''''
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| ** '''''Use a [[biofuel]]:''''' This has some effect only if the biofuel has lower [[Life cycle assessment|full-life-cycle]] greenhouse gas emissions.
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| == Carbon offsetting ==
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| === Independent of airline ===
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| Carbon offsetting organizations emerged into the mainstream in the latter half of the 1990s<ref>''Future Forests'' (which became the [http://www.carbonneutral.com The CarbonNeutral Company]) was one of the first to sell carbon offsets to consumers and businesses and it originated in 1997 (information from a [http://www.carbonneutral.com/pages/evolution.asp webpage of The CarbonNeutral Company], accessed 21 January 2009).</ref>. Today there are a large number of such organizations that passengers can use to offset a flight. Their products differ in method used to determine impact on climate, method used to offset impact on climate, price, and so on. Kollmuss and Bowell have compiled a review of the organizations and their products<ref>A.Kollmuss and B.Bowell [http://sustainability.tufts.edu/pdf/TCI_Carbon_Offsets_Paper_April-2-07.pdf ''Voluntary Offsets For Air-Travel Carbon Emissions: Evaluations and Recommendations of Voluntary Offset Companies''] (0.64MB) Revision 1.3 (Tufts Climate Initiative, 5 April 2007).</ref>. In recent years, the quantity of offsets sold has grown rapidly but the fraction of flights that are offset in this way remains negligible<ref>S.Gössling, J.Broderick, P.Upham, J-P.Ceron, G.Dubois, P.Peeters, and W.Strasdas [http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jost/015/0223/jost0150223.pdf ‘Voluntary Carbon Offsetting Schemes for Aviation: Efficiency, Credibility and Sustainable Tourism’] ''Journal of Sustainable Tourism'' '''15''', 223–248 (2007).</ref> (and this is despite the fact that the cost of an offset is typically of order only 1% of the cost of an airfare<ref>Based on quotes obtained from [http://www.aa.com American Airlines] and [http://www.carbonneutral.com The CarbonNeutral Company] in January 2009 for a flight in February 2009 from New York to Los Angeles.</ref>).
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| === Through airline ===
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| ==== Voluntary participation ====
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| Airlines can offer carbon offsets to their passengers (in such a program, passengers that wish to participate pay the airline an additional charge — the airline then uses the money to purchase appropriate offsets for the passenger’s flight from a carbon offsetting organization). [[British Airways]] was the first major airline to establish such a program (in September 2005)<ref>British Airways press release, [http://bapress.custhelp.com/cgi-bin/bapress.cfg/php/enduser/std_adp.php?p_faqid=7143&p_created=1126514187&p_sid=mQ-KJroj&p_accessibility=0&p_redirect=&p_lva=&p_sp=cF9zcmNoPTEmcF9zb3J0X2J5PSZwX2dyaWRzb3J0PSZwX3Jvd19jbnQ9NTYsNTYmcF9wcm9kcz0mcF9jYXRzPSZwX3B2PSZwX2N2PSZwX3BhZ2U9MyZwX3NlYXJjaF90ZXh0PWNhcmJvbiBvZmZzZXQ*&p_li=&p_topview=1 ‘Carbon offset scheme launched’] (12 September 2005).</ref><sup>,</sup><ref name="Prynn">J.Prynn, [http://www.thisismoney.co.uk/consumer/caring/article.html?in_article_id=429419&in_page_id=511 ‘BA asks all passengers to offset flights’], ''Evening Standard'', 15 January 2008.</ref>. Initially British Airways kept its program largely hidden from its passengers, resulting in very low passenger participation. This was later criticised by the British government<ref>Environmental Audit Committee, [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmselect/cmenvaud/331/331.pdf ''The Voluntary Carbon Offset Market''] — Sixth Report of Session 2006–07, Report HC 331 (House of Commons, London, 2007).</ref>. Since then many more airlines have introduced offset programs. For example, in June 2007 [[Delta Air Lines]] became the first major U.S. airline to introduce such a program<ref>The Conservation Fund news release [http://www.conservationfund.org/node/539 ‘Delta to Launch Worldwide Carbon Offset Program for Customers This Summer’] (18 April 2007).</ref>. Airlines have also become much more aggressive at marketing their programs to passengers. For example, since September 2007, passengers booking flights over the internet or telephone with [[Jetstar Airways]] have been ''required'' to specify whether or not they wish to purchase offsets for their flight<ref>Jetstar media release, [http://www.jetstar.com/~/media/files/pdf/news/2007/sep/20070918_cof.pdf ‘Jetstar launches Carbon Offset Program and confirms environmental commitment’] (18 September 2007).</ref>. With this approach, Jetstar has secured approximately 10% passenger participation<ref>Jetstar media release, [http://www.jetstar.com/~/media/files/pdf/news/2007/oct/20071004.pdf ‘Jetstar passengers give carbon offsets the ‘green’ light’] (4 October 2007).</ref><sup>,</sup><ref>M.Murphy, [http://business.theage.com.au/jetstars-carbonoffset-program-soars-ahead/20080127-1ogg.html ‘Jetstar’s carbon-offset program soars ahead’] ''The Age'', January 28, 2008.</ref> (Jetstar’s offsets typically add approximately 1% to the price of the airfare<ref>Based on quotes obtained from [http://www.jetstar.com Jetstar] in early 2008.</ref>). British Airways also adopted this approach (in January 2008)<ref name="Prynn" />. [[Virgin Atlantic Airways|Virgin Atlantic]] has (since November 2007) promoted its offset program while in flight<ref>B.Webster, [http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article2827759.ece ‘Madam, do you wish to offset your carbon now or risk social Siberia?’] ''The Times'', 8 November 2007.</ref>. [[Virgin America]] has (since January 2009) done the same thing using its inflight entertainment system<ref>GlobeNewswire [http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/virgin-america-first-domestic-carrier/story.aspx?guid={BE92A1B4-FFDB-49FB-849F-94B6D2AB86B1}&dist=msr_1 ‘Virgin America First Domestic Carrier to Offer Carbon Offsets In-Flight’] 20 January 2009.</ref>.
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| ==== Mandatory participation — ‘carbon neutral’ airlines ====
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| A small number of airlines, operating in niche markets, offset all of their flights. The airfares of such airlines include a mandatory component to cover the cost of offsetting. Examples of such airlines are [[Nature Air]] (since 2004<ref>Website of [http://www.natureair.com/carbonneutral/ NatureAir], accessed 23 January 2009.</ref>), [[Harbour Air]] (since 2007<ref>Website of [http://www.harbour-air.com/offsetting.php Harbour Air Seaplanes], accessed 23 January 2009.</ref>), and (now defunct) [[Silverjet]] ([[Silverjet|in 2007]]). Such airlines strongly promote their ‘carbon neutral’ status.
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| == Fuel efficiency ==
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| [[Fuel_efficiency_in_transportation|Newer aircraft tend to be more fuel efficient than older aircraft.]] Airlines with youthful fleets can therefore claim a reduced impact on climate. This is done by, for example, [[Singapore Airlines]]<ref>Website of [http://www.singaporeair.com/saa/en_UK/content/company_info/responsibility/environment.jsp?v=73458548& Singapore Airlines], accessed 23 January 2009.</ref>.
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| == Use of biofuels ==
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| Several airlines have made demonstration flights using biofuels — [[Virgin Atlantic Airways|Virgin Atlantic]] in February 2008<ref>Website of [http://www.virgin-atlantic.com/en/au/allaboutus/environment/biofuel.jsp Virgin Atlantic Airways], accessed 5 December 2008.</ref>, [[Air New Zealand]] in December 2008<ref>Air New Zealand media release [http://www.airnewzealand.co.nz/aboutus/mediacentre/pressreleases/airnz-biofuel-flight-a-success-30dec08.htm ‘Air New Zealand Test Flight Proves Viability of Jatropha Biofuel’] (30 December 2008).</ref>, and [[Continental Airlines|Continental]] in January 2009<ref>Continental Airlines news release [http://www.continental.com/web/en-US/apps/vendors/default.aspx?i=http%3A%2F%2Fphx%2Ecorporate%2Dir%2Enet%2Fphoenix%2Ezhtml%3Fc%3D85779%26p%3Dirol%2DnewsArticle%26ID%3D1241576 ‘Continental Airlines Flight Demonstrates Use of Sustainable Biofuels as Energy Source for Jet Travel’] (7 January 2009).</ref>. If even one airline can operate on a biofuel blend on one of its routes, then it becomes possible for any airline to offer any passenger flying on any route the option to effectively fly on a fuel that emits no greenhouse gas<ref>D.A.Wardle, [http://www.phy.auckland.ac.nz/staff/daw/gat.html ‘Global sale of green air travel supported using biodiesel’] ''Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews'' '''7''', 1–64 (2003).</ref>. Equivalently, the airline industry could create carbon offsets (and could therefore offer carbon offsets to passengers ''without'' needing to employ carbon offsetting organizations that are not part of the airline industry).
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| The use of biofuels might address greenhouse gas emissions, but it also raises [[Issues relating to biofuels|other issues]] (such as competition over land/ocean with ecosystem conservation, use of agricultural chemicals, treatment of agricultural workers, and so on). Even if these issues can be addressed, there remains a conflict between devoting resources to air travel and devoting resources to purposes that might be regarded as more essential (for example, a person can be trained to fly wealthy tourists or trained to develop agricultural systems in impoverished communities). Defining what might constitute ‘green’ air travel therefore remains challenging (especially in the case of leisure travel).
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| == References and further reading ==
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| === References ===
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| <references/>
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| === Further reading ===
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| * Anja Kollmuss & Jessica Lane, [http://www.sei-us.org/Air_Travel_Emissions_Paper_Part1.pdf ''Carbon Offsetting & Air Travel Part 1: CO2-Emissions Calculations''] (Stockholm Environment Institute, May 2008).
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